UNIT TWO

STRUCTURE STUDY
1. VARIOUS FUNCTIONS OF SINGLE INFINITIVE

GRAMMAR: INFINITIVE: FUNCTIONS AND CONSTRUCTIONS. TOPIC: SCIENCE: ITS FUTURE.

STRUCTURE STUDY:
1. Various Functions of Single Infinitive (Patterns 13 - 19).
2. Infinitive Constructions Equivalent to Clauses (Patterns 20 - 22).

WORD STUDY:
any, no, that (conj.), what, which,
1. English-Russian Word Relation.
2. Word Structure (for(e)-, -able/-ible, -ful, -less, -ly, N V).
3. Word Meaning (available, to argue, to consider, to fail, to prove, to reason).
4. Word Combinations.
5. Structure Words (some, whether).

TEXT STUDY:
Introduction.
Text A. Physics: Its Recent Past and the Lessons to Be Learned (for class-room reading and analysis, and home translation).
Text B. Molecular Biology in the Year 2000 (for class-room comprehension reading).
Text C. Physics in the Next 30 Years (for home practice in different reading skills).
Text D. Forecasts in Science: Are They Worth Making? (for class-room practice in understanding spoken English.)

STRUCTURE STUDY
1. VARIOUS FUNCTIONS OF SINGLE INFINITIVE

Pattern Study (13, 14, 15)

Pattern 13:
Inf. (Na). . .V_f. . .
To appreciate the present requires some historical perspective.
Оценка настоящего требует некоторой исторической перспективы.

Pattern 14:
Inf. (N₂). . .V_imper ...
To appreciate the present try to look at it in historical perspective. Для того чтобы оценить настоящее, постарайтесь взглянуть на него исторически.

Pattern 15:
Inf. (N₂). . .N₁. . .V_f . . .
1) (In order) to appreciate the present, one must have some historical perspective. Для того чтобы оценить настоящее, необходима некоторая историческая перспектива.
2) То be a successful scientist, one must possess certain characteristic qualities. To begin with, one must be curious about the world around him. Для того чтобы добиться успеха в науке, необходимо обладать определенными специфическими качествами. Прежде всего необходимо испытывать желание познать окружающий мир.

Pattern Vocabulary (15.2). List 6

Remember the infinitives and infinitive phrases commonly used to connect sentences in the text.
to begin with - прежде всего, начнем с того, что. . .; во-первых; для начала;
to conclude - в заключение;
to generalize - обобщая, в общем, если обобщить (вышесказанное);
to illustrate - для иллюстрации, например;
to make a long story short - короче говоря;
to mention - если упомянуть;
not to mention - не говоря уже о. . .;
to put it briefly - короче говоря;
to put it another way - иначе говоря, иными словами;
to say nothing of - не говоря уже о. . .;
so to say - так сказать;
to sum up - подводя итог, итак, если подвести итог;
to take an example - например;
to tell the truth - по правде говоря.

Pattern Practice (13-15)

Ex. 1.

A. Identify the infinitives according to Patterns 13-15 and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
     1. To make a choice between these two alternatives is not an easy task. 2. To be on the safe side, take special care of the accuracy of the calculation. 3. To foresee what the future will be like requires analysis of the past experience. 4. To tell the truth, the results have no direct bearing on the problem under investigation. 5. To argue about it is not fruitful at the moment. 6. To establish cause-effect relationship between smoking and some diseases, extensive research is being carried on at several research centers. 7. To sum up, synthetic problems are studied for the possibilities which they hold for practical applications. 8. To put it another way, the experimental procedure must suit the purpose of the experiment. 9. To be able to forecast the future, we must begin by a thorough analysis of the past course of events.

B. Give English equivalents of the italicized parts of the sentences.
     1. Для того чтобы соответствовать цели эксперимента, метод должен быть прост. 2. Установить причинно-следственные отношения часто означает решить проблему. 3. Предвидеть будущее невозможно без анализа прошлого. 4. Говоря по правде, все ожидали совершенно других результатов. 5. Сделать выбор часто бывает самым трудным. 6. Чтобы не рисковать, проверьте аппаратуру перед экспериментом еще раз.

Pattern Study (16)

Р a t t e r n 16:
. . . N₁. . .V_f. . .Inf. . . .

1) A pure scientist wants to establish the underlying relationship of the events observed. Ученый, занимающийся чистой наукой, стремится установить внутреннюю взаимосвязь наблюдаемых явлений.
2) The book has been written (so as/in order) to review recent developments in this area of research. Книга написана с целью сделать обзор последних достижений в этой области исследований.
3) These advanced concepts have been immediately applied to practice, to give rise to a new branch of technology. Эти передовые идеи были немедленно применены на практике, породив новую область техники (=и породили новую область техники).

Pattern Vocabulary (16.3). List 7

     Remember the infinitives commonly used in Pattern 16.3.
to bring about - порождать, вызывать;
to give - давать, порождать;
to give rise to - порождать, приводить к; to form - образовывать, давать; to make - производить, делать; to produce - производить, давать; to yield - производить, давать.

Pattern Practice (16)

Ex. 2.

A. Identify the structures according to Pattern 16 and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
     1. The analysis has been extended (so as) to take into consideration the unavoidable by-effects. 2. Two hydrogen atoms combine to form a hydrogen molecule. 3. Under this assumption the equation is reduced to yield a classical relation.4. We do not expect to solve all these problems by, the turn of the century. 5. The new substance readily reacts with alkali metals to give rise to alloys with predetermined characteristics. 6. At this stage a new theory was advanced to produce a revolutionary change in our understanding of the process.

B. Identify the structures according to Pattern 16 including perfect infinitive and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
     1. They claim to have accounted for the effect observed. 2. He admits to have made a similar mistake in his earlier рublication. 3. He was sorry to have occupied himself with the problem for so long, and not to have given it up earlier. 4. They admit to have been informed of this possibility before the experiment. 5. Mark Twain allegedly remarked once that a classic is something which nobody wants to read but everybody wants to have read. 6. To write with precision, it is necessary to have thought logically first.

Pattern Study (17)

Pattern 17:
... N₁... be_t...Inf...

1) The traditional question behind the research is: "How is this to be explained?" or "How are we to explain this?".
"How can this be explained?" or "How must (can) we explain this?" В основе научного исследования лежит традиционный вопрос: "Как это (можно) объяснить?" или "Как мы это объясняем (=можем объяснить)?"
2) The primary task of the laboratory head is to provide conditions favourable for experimentation (. . . the task . . . consists in providing . . .). Основная задача руководителя лаборатории заключается в том, чтобы обеспечить условия, благоприятные для экспериментальной работы.

Pattern Practice (17)

Ex. 3. Look through lists А, В, С and make up various meaningful sentences according to Pattern 17.
     A. The aim of our seminars; the purpose of the hook; the task of the research group; the procedure; one important thing; we; the research group.
     B. Is; are; was; were.
     C. То point out general tendencies; to review recent developments in the field; to take into consideration all the essential factors; to learn from the past experience; to suggest some fresh ideas for research; to develop a special apparatus suited for the experiment; to tackle the problem of ocean exploitation.

Ex. 4.

A. Identify the structure according to Pattern 17 and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
     1. The aim was to discuss the impact of scientific activity on technology. 2. If we are to achieve the aim we must confine our attention to one point only. 3. Perhaps the greatest problem at present is to get some understanding of the remarkable phenomenon of memory. 4. The original idea was to take advantage of the high temperature of the process. 5. Glass which is to be used for lenses must be almost colourless. 6. The train is to reach its destination in 52 hours. 7. The joint programme of Soviet and foreign scientists on space research is to be discussed at the next COSPAR conference. 8. Many terrigenous bacteria which have become adapted to salt water are to be found close inshore.

B. Give English equivalents of the italicized part of the sentences.
     1. Если мы хотим добиться цели, мы должны принять во внимание все источники ошибок. 2. Цель этой книги - дать обзор последних достижений в этой области исследования. 3. Наша задача заключается в том, чтобы обеспечить условия, наиболее благоприятные для работы. 4. Самое важное - это сосредоточить внимание на одном вопросе. 5. Нам предстоит подкрепить эту интерпретацию новыми экспериментальными данными.
6. Задача семинарских обсуждений заключается в том, чтобы предлагать новые эксперименты.

Pattern Study (18)

Р a t t e r n 18:
. . .Adj./Adv. . . .(as) Inf. . . .
a) The programme is sufficiently diversified (=diversified enough) to excite the interest of most graduate students. The
programme is sufficiently diversified and it can excite the interest of most graduate students. Программа достаточно разнообразна для того, чтобы возбудить интерес большинства студентов-выпускников.
b) The concept was too advanced to be appreciated by contemporary scientists. The concept was too advanced and it
could not be appreciated by contemporary scientists. Идея слишком опережала свое время, чтобы ее могли оценить современники.

Pattern Vocabulary (18). List 8

      Remember the adjectives and adverbs used in Pattern 18:
a) enough - достаточно;
sufficient(ly) - достаточный (о);
so ... (as) - настолько. . . (что);
such . . . (as) ... - такой. . . (что);
b) too - слишком.

Pattern Practice (18)

Ex. 5.

A. Identify the structures according to Pattern 18 and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
     1. The consequences might be so disastrous as to exceed anything imaginable. 2. His story of the past is too personal to have any bearing on other people's experience. 3. The advantages of such an approach are evident enough to be taken for granted. 4. The experiment produced enough evidence to support the interpretation suggested. 5. The failure of the project was such as to discourage further efforts for many a year. 6. The information available was not sufficient to contribute to the clarification of the problem. 7. The assumption is reasonable enough to be valid.

B. Translate into English using Pattern 18.
     1. Предположение было слишком неожиданным, чтобы его можно было принять без доказательств. 2. Идеи слишком опережают свое время, чтобы их можно было сразу же принять. 3. Аргументы представляются достаточно разумными, чтоб изменить ход обсуждения. 4. Данных было недостаточно, чтобы внести ясность в эту проблему. 5. Это предложение не так важно, чтобы его рассматривать на сегодняшнем заседании.

Reading Practice (Patterns 13-18)

Text 6. 1) Read the text to yourself and be ready for a comprehension check-up.
     To speculate about the future is one of the most basic qualities of man. It involves two aspects: one is to forecast what the future development will be and the other is to determine in what approximate period of time it is going to take place. To make such a prognosis means to learn from the past experience and to extrapolate the knowledge into the future. Recently, however, the rate of change has been so great as to make it difficult to learn from experience, at least as far as the time factor is concerned. To take but one example, a prediction of man's possible landing on the Moon around the turn of the century was made as late as 1961, only 8 years before the actual event! So, to be on the safe side, we had better leave time to take care of itself, and concentrate our attention on what the future may be like.
     There is yet another problem involved: are we to accept submissively any possible course of events, or are we to work for a future most suited for most people? The choice is to be made, at different levels, by every individual and by every society.

2) Check up for comprehension.
1. What are the two aspects of speculation about the future? 2. What are the two steps of any prognosis? 3. Why has it been so difficult recently to make any predictions concerning the future development? 4. What example is cited to illustrate the difficulty? 5. Does the author make any suggestions concerning this difficulty? Why does he suggest this? 6. What dilemma are we faced with and what choice is to be made by every individual and every society? 7. What are Russian equivalents of: before the actual event, leave time to take care of itself, what the future may be like?

Pattern Revision (13-18)
(to be done at home in written form)

Ex. 6.

A. Identify the infinitive according to Patterns 13-18 and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
     1. What we try to do is to foretell a general tendency rather than a particular development. 2. The subject is fascinating enough to suggest itself for a wide discussion by people engaged in different research areas. 3. The aim of the book is to present the case for an extensive study of this complicated phenomenon. 4. The factor is important enough to be taken into consideration even though detailed analysis is not at present feasible. 5. To tackle such a problem with any of the techniques available before the advent of the computer would have been pointless. 6. To conclude, a definite science politics is needed if the development of science is to favour the best interests of the country. 7. It is generally accepted that no outstandingly new or revolutionary theoretical concept in physics can be invented by anyone over the age of 25; by that age one's ideas are already too solidified to permit imagination to triumph over rationality. 8. The definition was severely criticized, to give rise to a long and heated argument on the pages of some journals. 9. To appreciate the accuracy of the data, refer to Table I on page 57. 10. This book is a first-rate introduction to the nature and methods of scientific thought to say nothing of its remarkably clear style. It is an ideal book for a fresher, as to follow the author no knowledge of science is needed. 11. To avoid making mistakes is always very difficult, because, to begin with, to err is human. 12. He was strong enough to override the opposition, but after his death the project was abandoned. 13. After World War II Von Neumann's group was to lead the world in ideas concerning the development and the use of computers. 14. Some mathematicians have alienated mathematics from the rest of human culture to bring it to the danger of becoming sterile. 15. He admitted to have oversimplified the problem, but his only excuse was that it was too complicated to be tackled directly.

     B. Translate into English.
     1. Этот фактор слишком важен, чтобы не принять его во внимание. 2. Если мы хотим добиться цели, мы должны учесть также фактор времени. 3. Цель книги заключается в том, чтобы представить все доводы в пользу этих исследований. 4. Эта идея достаточно очевидна и сама собой напрашивается. 5. Извлекать уроки из прошлого опыта не так просто, как это может показаться. 6. Он был достаточно сильной личностью, чтобы преодолеть сопротивление своих коллег. 7. Чтобы по достоинству оценить значение этого эксперимента, необходимо сравнить его с остальными работами в этой области. 8. Избежать ошибок, как правило, очень трудно.

Pattern Study (19)

Pattern 19:
. . .N. . .Inf. . . .
The technique of collecting information will differ according to the problem to be solved. The technique of collecting information will differ according to the problem which is to (can/must/will) be solved.

Pattern Practice (19)

Ex. 7.

A. Identify the structures according to Pattern 19 and practise orally as shown in the following example.
Example: There are new problems and complexities to be disentangled when the research range is extended.
. . . new problems and complexities to be disentangled ...
. . . new problems and complexities which are to be disentangled.

     1. What are the lessons to be learned? 2. This is not an opportunity to be thrown away. 3. An interesting distinction to be made here is between problems and techniques. 4. Another factor to be taken into consideration is the power of modern experimental techniques. 5. The rate of our knowledge growth will surely increase in the years to come.

B. Give English equivalents of:
     1. Проблема, которую надо решить. 2. Фактор, который надо принять во внимание. 3. Задачи, которые стоят перед нами сегодня. 4. Сложности, которые необходимо распутать. 5. Грядущие года.

C. То distinguish between N. . .Ved and N. . .Inf. give Russian equivalents of:
     1. the data analysed - the data-to be analysed; 2. the lessons learned - the lessons to be learned; 3. the choice made - the choice to be made; 4. the factor taken into consideration - the factor to be taken into consideration; 5. new complexities disentangled - new complexities to be disentangled; 6. a : distinction made - a distinction to be made.

2. INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
EQUIVALENT TO CLAUSES

Pattern Study (20)

Pattern 20:
...V_act...N₂... Inf*...

Most scientists expect major development in the near future to take place in biology. Большинство ученых ожидает, что основные открытия в ближайшем будущем произойдут в биологии.
It is sometimes very difficult to make people see your point. Иногда очень трудно добиться того, чтобы другие поняли тo, что вы хотите сказать.

Pattern Vocabulary (20). List 9

      Remember some of the verbs commonly used in Pattern 20.
      1. Verbs of mental and sensual perception and estimation:
a) to assume - делать допущение, условно полагать;
to believe - считать верным, полагать;
to consider - приходить к заключению (мнению), полагать, считать;
to estimate - оценивать, считать;
to expect - ожидать, полагать;
to find - находить, считать;
to hate - считать неприемлемым;
to hold - придерживаться мнения, считать;
to know - знать;
to like - считать желательным;
to prove - доказывать;
to regard as - рассматривать, считать;
to show - показывать;
to suppose - предполагать, полагать;
to take - принимать (за), считать;
to think - думать, полагать;
b) to feel** - чувствовать;
to hear** - слышать;
to see ** - видеть;
to watch ** - наблюдать.
_________________________________
* Or Ving, Ved, Adj.
** These verbs are followed by infinitives without to.


     2. Verbs of causation and initiation:
to allow - дать возможность, позволить, допустить;
to cause - быть причиной, побудить;
to enable - сделать способным, позволить;
to force - принуждать, заставить;
to get - получать желаемое, добиваться;
to have * - иметь желаемое, добиться;
to make* - сделать так, чтобы. . .; заставить; .
to permit - дать возможность, разрешить, позволить;
to require - побуждать к действию (требовать, чтобы. . .);
to want - хотеть, чтобы. . .

* These verbs are followed by infinitives without to.

Pattern Practice (20)

Ex. 8. Identify the structures according to Pattern 20 and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.

1. One can assume this to be self-evident. 2. One can expect the scope of research to expand steadily.3. Most people believe the amount of effort in science to be somehow correlated with the standard of living in the country. 4. Nowadays we see many new areas of research come into being as a resulfof unexpected breakthroughs. 5. One can watch more and more people move into biology from other areas of research. 6. The present-day situation forces more and more countries to start contributing to this field of research. 7. An efficient laboratory head always knows how to get his people to do their work properly and on time. 8. If one is really interested in science, one does not like any problem, however difficult, to be left unsolved. 9. Most scientists regard biology, rather than physics, as the likely central ground of scientific advance in the near future. 10. One will naturally think such course of events (to be) disastrous not only for science but for the future of mankind. 11. One of the major problems at present for a university is to have young people interested in long-range problems. 12. One can hardly tolerate one's ideas being criticized without an attempt to defend them. 13. Assuming this to have direct bearing on the future of man, the author goes into a detailed analysis of the present status of science and scientists in advanced countries. 14. The author's major concern is to make the reader realize the full implications of genetic engineering. 15. He achieves his aim by having the reader follow his story of this new area of research from its early days up to now.

Ex. 9. Learn to distinguish between indefinite and perfect infinitives in Pattern 20. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. The history of the last 30 years shows him to have done very well. 2. We know him to have established a school of his own. 3. We do not expect him to throw away an opportunity like this. 4. We know him to have objected to this style of research on previous occasions. 5. They considered all water on the surface of this planet to have been liberated by volcanic action.

Ex. 10. Learn to distinguish between active and passive infinitives in Pattern 20. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. This allowed him to follow the rules. This allowed the rules to be followed. 2- This information enabled the scientist to make a forecast for the next few years. This information enabled forecasts for the next few years to be made. 3. This analysis permitted them to tackle the problem directly. This analysis permitted the problem to be tackled directly.

Ex. 11. Learn to distinguish between three different structures shown in the following example. Translate the sentences into Russian.

Example: a) Before he gave up the research he had represented our research group at international symposia. До того как он перестал заниматься этим исследованием, он представлял нашу исследовательскую группу на международных симпозиумах.
b) He had our researh group represented at the last symposium.
Он устроил так, что наша группа была представлена на последнем симпозиуме.
c) Не had his assistant represent our research group at the last symposium. Он устроил так, что его помощник представлял
нашу группу на последнем симпозиуме.

1. They have supported the project both with money and manpower. They got the project supported both with money and manpower. They got the committee to support the project both with money and manpower. 2. He has kept the discussion within reasonable limits. He had the chairman keep the discussion within reasonable limits. He had the discussion kept within reasonable limits. 3. They have left the problem out of the scope of their research. They had the problem left out of the scope of their research. They made him leave the problem out of the scope of his research. 4. He has extended the range of his observations. He had the range of observations extended. He got his assistant to extend the range of observation.

Reading Practice (13-20)

Text 7. 1) Read the text to yourself and be ready for a comprehension check up.

SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE

      What is the nature of the scientific attitude, the attitude of the man or woman who studies and applies physics, biology, chemistry or any other science? What are their special methods of thinking and acting? What qualities do we usually expect them to possess?
      To begin with, we expect a successful scientist to be full of curiosity - he wants to find out how and why the universe works. He usually directs his attention towards problems which have no satisfactory explanation, and his curiosity makes him look for the underlying relationships even if the data to be analysed are not apparently interrelated. He is a good observer, accurate, patient and objective. Furthermore, he is not only critical of the work of others, but also of his own, since he knows man to be the least reliable of scientific instruments.
And to conclude, he is to be highly imaginative since he often looks- for data which are not only complex, but also incomplete.

2) Check up for comprehension.
1. What qualities do we expect to find in a successful scientist? 2. Why do we say that a successful scientist is full of curiosity? 3. Why is it difficult to see the underlying relationships? 4. Why is he critical of his own work? b. Why is it necessary for him to be highly imaginative? 6. Give a Russian equivalent of the title and of the data analysed and the data to be analysed.

Pattern Revision (19, 20)
(to be done at home in written form)

Ex. 12.

A. Identify the structures according to Patterns 19 and 20 and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
     1. What enabled the scientist to do so well with this disastrous situation? 2. They could not tolerate other people taking up the problem which they had been investigating for so long. 3. At that time the project, later to be taken over by another laboratory, was still in progress. 4. After a long discussion and argument they still could not agree as to what might be the best way to provide an atmosphere necessary for research. 5. He was always the first to take up a complicated problem and the last to give it up. 6. It is highly desirable to get these values checked before another series of experiments. 7. Instead of having astronomers watch the stars go around each other, why can we not take a ball of lead and a marble and watch the marble go toward the ball of lead? 8. The first section of each article will be devoted to a short summary of the history of the problem, to be followed by a review of the modern advance. 9. Philosophy is a distinct science with its own clearly defined subject matter to be studied in the same specific way as that of any (other science. 10. On assuming the body with the mass M to be acted upon by force F, let us calculate acceleration. 11. Later we find Shakespeare using this style in prose dialogue; sometimes merely in caricature, but at other times quite seriously. 12. An important point to be dealt with in the next chapter is different techniques of data-processing. 13. It is sometimes very difficult to get people to agree upon most obvious things, although the things to be agreed upon may be generally accepted as urgent. 14. One can hardly expect a true scientist to keep within the limits of one narrow long-established field, leaving most fascinating problems to be found on the frontiers, out of the scope of his inquiry. 15. Good management means getting things done rather than doing things. 16. This amounts to assuming the rate of our knowledge growth to depend on the amount of knowledge already accumulated. 17. It is time to pause at this stage of the story to have the reader realize its significance for the evolution of physical thinking. 18. At that time the scientist reported to have observed an unusual luminescence during his experiments with cathode tubes.

B. Translate the following into English using Patterns 19 and 20.
     1. Большинство ученых ожидает, что в ближайшие годы молекулярная биология сделает новые успехи. 2. Мы не смогли заставить его согласиться на изменение условий эксперимента. 3. Ваш руководитель хочет, чтобы вы сосредоточили свое внимание народной задаче. 4. Я не ожидаю, что он извлечет, из этого урок. 5. Он всегда первый берется за такие проблемы. 6. Желательно, чтобы эти измерения были проверены до начала новой серии опытов. 7.Мы часто видим, как биологи заимствуют методы не только у физиков, но и у химиков.

Pattern Study (21)

P a t t e r n 21:
. . for. . .N. . .Inf. ...
There is an apparent tendency for science to become more and more mathematical. Существует явная тенденция к тому, чтобы наука все более математизировалась.

Pattern Practice (21)

Ex. 13. Look through lists А, В, С and make up various meaningful sentences according to Pattern 21.
A. It is necessary; it is important; it is often difficult; L it is sometimes impossible.
B. Scientists; physics; a research center; us; physicists.
C. To occupy themselves with vital problems; to correlate theory with experiment; to foresee the implications of their research; to keep in touch with other fields; to guess what the future may be like.

Ex. 14. Translate the following into English using Pattern,21.
1. Мне трудно об этом спорить. 2. Им важно подкрепить теорию дополнительными экспериментальными данными.
3. Физикам важно поддерживать контакт с биологами 4. Ребенку необходимо учиться на собственном опыте. 5. Нам часто трудно угадать, каким будет будущее. 6. Естественно, что на такой анализ затрачивается, около года.
7. Необходимо, чтобы реакция была ускорена. 8. Чтобы две молекулы вступили в реакцию, они должны столкнуться.

Ex. 15. Identify the structures according to Pattern 21 and give Russian , equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.

1. This decision reflects a desire to make it as easy as possible for members of the association and other guests to attend the congress. 2. For such a large research center as this to become heavily involved in a single project in a fashionable field, would be more than just a wrong practice, it would be a disaster. 3. The tendency for pure mathematicians to alienate mathematical research from anything that might be somehow associated with the idea of "utilization" is only too obvious. 4. For any scientific gathering to be a success, the organizing committee must be firm on more than one point. 5. There was a. prevalent feeling at that, time that for the laboratory to revive its past glory no efforts were intensive enough. 6. With so many people working in the same field, it is enough to come across something new and remark it for a crowd of other researchers to appear from every side to work the thing out before you have had time to reflect on your finding in peace.

Pattern1 Study (22)

Pattern 22:
N . .V. . . (by/with-phr.). . .Inf.*
Nowadays science is known to contribute to every aspect of man's life. It is known that nowadays science contributes to every aspect of man's life. Известно, что в наши дни наука вносит свой вклад во все аспекты нашей жизни.
With the advent of nuclear weapon some people seemed to be disappointed in science. With the advent of nuclear weapon it seemed that some people were disappointed in science. С появлением атомного оружия некоторые люди, по-видимому, разочаровались в науке.

Molecular biology is likely to dominate science in the years to come. It is likely that molecular biology will dominate science in the years to come. Весьма вероятно, что молекулярная биология займет в будущем доминирующее положение в науке.

Pattern Vocabulary (22). List 10

     Remember some of the verbs used to connect N with an Infinitive in Pattern 22.
1. Verbs of mental and sensual perception and estimation, used in the passive:
a) to assume - делать допущение, условно полагать;
to believe - считать верным, полагать;
to consider - прийти к заключению (мнению), полагать, считать;
to estimate - оценивать, считать;
to expect - ожидать, полагать;
to find - находить, считать;
to hold - придерживаться мнения, считать;
______________________________
Or as Ving, Ved, Adj., N.

to know - знать;
to regard - рассматривать, считать;
to report - сообщать;
to say - говорить;
to show - показывать;
to state - утверждать;
to suppose - предполагать, полагать;
to take - принимать (за), считать;
to think - думать, полагать;
to understand - воспринимать, считать;

b) to hear - слышать;
to see - видеть, считать;
to feel - чувствовать, считать.

2. Verbs used in the active:
to appear - иметь вид, казаться, оказаться;

to chance, to happen- случайно оказаться;

to prove - в конечном счете оказаться;
to seem - создавать впечатление, казаться;
to turn out - обернуться, неожиданно оказаться.

3. Adjectives used as predicatives:
likely - вероятный; . . .is likely to. . . - вероятно; unlikely - маловероятный; . . .is unlikely to. . . - маловероятно;
certain - определенный; . . .is certain to. . . - несомненно, обязательно; sure - уверенный; . . .is sure to. . . - наверняка, обязательно.

Pattern Practice (22)

Ex. 16.

A. Identify the structures according to Pattern 22 and transform them as shown above.
     1. Science is known to affect the lives of people. 2. Molecular biology is expected to dominate other sciences. 3. The results of these experiments are found to overlap. 4. The data are assumed to correlate with the present theory. 5. Some people seem to be disappointed in science. 6. He happens to work at the same problem. 7. The work is likely to contribute to the solution of the problem. 8. He is sure to argue about it.

B. Render in English, using pattern 22.
     1. Это, по всей вероятности, окажет влияние на дальнейшие события. 2. Результаты оказались в хорошем соответствии с теорией. 3. Решение этой проблемы, как известно, зависит от многих факторов. 4. Ожидается, что работа будет закончена в этом месяце.

Ex. 17.

A. Learn to distinguish between indefinite and perfect infinitives in Pattern 22. Translate the sentences into Russian.
     1. He is said to have graduated from Oxford University. He is said to avoid all sorts of arguments. 2. They seem to have taken advantage of the favourable conditions. He seems to mention the problem in the last chapter of his book. 3. He appeared to have lost interest in physics altogether. The story may appear to be oversimplified. 4. He is known to have established a school of his own. This scientist is known to be keeping in touch with the latest developments in his field of research.

B. Translate the sentences into Russian (mind the negation).
     1. He does not appear to be concerned with the problem. 2. He was not expected to spoil the sample. 3. The human body is not likely to tolerate such temperature. 4. He is not believed to represent the majority. 5. The idea does not seem to be remarkably advanced. 6. The discussion is not claimed to cover the whole range of present-day research.

С. Identify the structures according to Pattern 22 and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
     1. On such occasions the scientist was looked upon as representing the scientific community. 2. From this point of view the study can be regarded as contributing to fundamental knowledge. 3. Practically, the problem can be considered as given up. 4. The theory was counted upon ate correlating with all the existing data.

D. Identify the structures according to Pattern 22 and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
     1. He was deeply disappointed with the final results which turned out to be not what he had expected. 2. Some scientists occupy themselves primarily with problems likely to have direct bearing on the lives of people. 3. The data found to correlate with more than one interpretation, they attempted to approach the problem from a different viewpoint. 4. The scientist reported to have spent five years on the problem finally gave it up. 5. The danger of oversimplifying the problem seeming (to be) quite real, they changed the line of their attack. 6. By that time younger people thought to be brilliant physicists had left the laboratory.

Ex. 18. Identify the structures according to Patterns 21-22 and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.

1. For scientific development to be of benefit for man, scientists must occupy themselves with problems that have direct bearing on our lives. 2. Molecular biologists are known to borrow their techniques from other sciences, mainly from physics. 3. How the application of his discovery will affect man is sometimes rather hard for the scientist to foresee. 4. The author devoted a special chapter of his book to what may be expected to dominate the science scene in the near future. 5. The method of inductive reasoning known to be established by Bacon leads from observation to general laws. 6. His idea was fruitful enough for others to take it up and develop it further. 7. For an original idea to be a product of one man's genius is quite natural. But for an idea to be transformed into a product, many people's effort is required. 8. Some people say that biology rather than physics is likely to be the central ground of scientific advance during the remainder of our century. 9. There appear no reasons for anybody to object to this style of research.

Reading Practice (Patterns 21-22)

Text 8. 1) Read the text to yourself and be ready for a comprehension check-up.

"WOULD YOU LIKE YOUR SON OR DAUGHTER TO BECOME A SCIENTIST? IF SO, IN WHAT FIELD?"

     The questions were asked by the Literary Gazette and a British scientist was reported to answer as follows.
     "I would not like my son or daughter to become a scientist of the kind typical in the world today. The development of science has already led to many undesirable consequences and is likely to lead to many more unless great effort is made to control the application of scientific discoveries. If, however, science could be developed in a new way to become a meaningful social activity, I would be glad to see my son or daughter doing science.
     So far as the field is concerned, I think there will be a growing tendency for scientists to occupy themselves with problems which affect fairly directly the lives of people. There seems to exist a great need to develop science which deals specially with the problems of how the applications of science affect man. To cite but a few examples, there are such problems as urban development, education and, of course, the prevention of war. If the new knowledge about the world is used for the benefit of man, rather than for death and destruction, the human race can continue to benefit from science for centuries to come.

2) Check up for comprehension.
1. What can you say about the form of the text and the title? 2. Is the answer to the 1st question "yes" or "no"? 2. What are the author's reasons for this answer? 4. Under what condition would the answer be different? 5. Does the author indicate any specific science in his answer to the 2nd question? 6. What problems are considered by the author to be worth studying? Why? 7. What is necessary for science to remain beneficial for people?

Pattern Revision (21-22)
(to be done at home in written form)

Ex. 19.

A.  Identify the structures according to Patterns 21 and 22 and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
     1. In the first place, this model of our own brain operation appears to be self-consistent - as it was designed to be. 2. The half-life period is the number of seconds for the radioactivity to fall to half its original value, i. e. for half the atoms to break up. 3. There are indications that various elements in addition to those found to be essential are beneficial to the growth of many plants. 4. The question whether the atom can or cannot be split up is known to have interested scientists from ancient times. 5. This assumption known to be invalid in some cases, may be expected to give useful results for the conditions stated. 6. These stars are much too remote for the astronomer to be able to solve the problem with the tools now available. 7. At that time it seemed that the research could be counted upon as leading to a better understanding of the process. 8. An illness unlikely to be identified at early stages manifests great danger to people. 9. Some experiments prove that it is physically possible for the ground ice of Alaska to have been formed by a process of segregation. 10. He does not seem to have attempted to set up a model to connect this strange behaviour with the previous observations. 11. The book was designed as a kind of platform to provide an opportunity for prominent speakers to represent their respective fields of science. 12. The origin of the difficulty is easily seen as resulting from summation of the diagrams. 13. This period of cataclysmic bombardment seems to have been widespread throughout the solar system. 14. Under what conditions will the reaction proceed rapidly enough for the method to be practicable? 15. Knowing this theory to be inadequate, he suggested that it should be modified to be brought into better agreement with the observed facts.

B. Translate the following into English using Patterns 21 and 22:
     1. Весьма вероятно, что биология займет доминирующее положение среди остальных наук. 2. Считается, что он представляет мнение большинства ученых. 3. Говорят, что он внес определенный вклад в решение этой проблемы.
4. Им не так-то просто было следовать этому правилу. 5. Кажется, он полностью потерял интерес к этой проблеме. 6. Нам необходимо поддерживать контакт с этой лабораторией. 7. Им было важно создать благоприятные условия для продолжения опытов. 8. Мне трудно угадать, каким будет результат.

General Revision (Patterns 13-22)
(to be done at home in written form)

Ex. 20. Identify the structures according to Patterns 13 through 22 and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
     1. To find the length of an object, we have to perform certain physical operations. 2. To begin with, our nervous systems are extremely imperfect, and we see things only in terms of our training and interests. 3. To put it another way, inventions seem to appear at times when societies need them. 4. There is an English saying that Satan will always find some work for idle hands to do. 5. There is a need for scientists to be more closely in touch with the community as a whole. 6. To say that poetry is sponsored, however, is not to say that it is necessarily bad. 7. To illustrate, Virgil had a sponsor and was working under assignment. . . the fulfilment of his assignment turned out to be a great poem. 8. These decisions are simply the only sensible ones to make under the circumstances. 9. For a man's life to be thoroughly satisfactory there has to be some underlying conviction about life itself. 10. The only way to avoid this is to keep definitions to a minimum. 11. Not to observe, consciously or unconsciously, such principles of interpretation is to think and react in primitive and infantile ways. 12. It is a completely wrong, and unfortunately common, practice to have students memorise long lists of foreign language words. 13. To understand the great reactivity of free radicals it is necessary to understand first why electrons pair to form the normal two-electron bond. 14. Even Chinese, which was cited as such a primitive language, was discovered to have possessed some inflection in its early history. As for "primitive languages", they have been shown to exhibit all the types of structures found in any language spoken by "civilized peoples". 15. For a patient to remove his own appendix under a local anaesthetic may be physically possible, but the practice is regarded with disfavour. 16. Another possible cause of slow reading is the common practice in English-as-a-second-language classes of having the students read aloud. 17. Finally, aging itself has been postulated to involve random, destructive reactions by radicals present in the body. 18. The availability of much heavier ions with sufficient energy to produce nuclear reactions, however, introduces an important new class of phenomena for consideration. 19. It would not be wise for any parent to dictate what field his child should enter for his life career. 20. The electric Coulomb force between the particles is very effective and accelerates the particles, causing them to be deflected through large angles. 21. The paper too short to cover the period of the last ten years in crystal physics still deserves some attention. 22. A good, manager always knows how to get people to do what they are expected to do properly and on time without having them feel uneasy.

WORD STUDY

1. LEARN TO RECOGNIZE INTERNATIONAL WORDS
(to be done in class)

Ex. 21.

A. Recognize familiar words:
a haemoglobin molecule [hi:mou'gloubin 'molikju:l], hierachy ['haira:ki], scale [skeil], unique [ju(:)'ni:k].

B. Give two Russian equivalents of different origin.
Example: control - контролировать, управлять.
Central, communication, purist, modern, nature.

С. Make up English-Russian pairs.
     1. The total knowledge, the total effect; 2. to become tolerant with age, tolerant to heat; 3. a wide range of disciplines, out of the range of one's interests; 4. in actual fact, the actual position; 5. academic science, academic scientists.
     1. He связанный с практикой, академический; 2. диапазон, сфера, ранг; 3. фактический, действительный; 4. общий, суммарный, всеобщий, тотальный; 5. терпимый, способный вынести что-л., толерантный.

D. Give Russian equivalents of the following:
     1. standard of living; 2. X-ray analysis; 3. an academic centre; 4. intellectual level; 5. accurately controlled energy; 6. extreme conditions; 7. a subject of a general nature.

2. LEARN TO RECOGNIZE THE STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS
(to be done at home in written form)

Ex. 22. Recognize the words formed according to the following patterns and give their Russian equivalents.

Pattern 7: for(e)+Root
Example: to foresee is to see in advance.

1. To make long-range forecasts in science is not an easy matter. 2. In his foreword to the book the author makes an attempt to forecast the future of the field. 3. The foregoing chapter is devoted to Ved and Ving forms. 4. The author tries to foretell a general tendency rather than a particular development.

Pattern 8: V+-able/-ible Adj.
Example: readable is something that can be read.

1. It is not reasonable to become heavily involved in fashionable problems. 2. Their output of papers is indistinguishable from the papers produced by other 20 institutes. 3. There will be a considerable amount of manpower available in the foreseeable future. 4. One of the tasks of electron microscope technology is to make the structure of molecules directly visible.

Pattern 9: N+-ful Adj.
Example: truthful is something full of truth.

1. To make such long-range forecasts is not always useful. Short-range forecasts are more often successful. 2. His cheerful remark was not understood properly. 3. There was a fruitful cooperation between the two laboratories in the past. 4. Such results could be obtained only with modern powerful research techniques.

Pattern 10: N+-less Adj.
Example: useless is something without use.

1. People are always talking about fundamental research implying therefore the existence of a nameless opposite. 2. We must not think that the natural resources are limitless. 3. In this context the results are absolutely meaningless. 4. It is pointless for anyone to try to make a complete list of most urgent things to do.

Pattern 11: Adj.+-ly Adv.
Example: briefly is in a brief manner.

1. The period of 30 years was taken arbitrarily. 2. The research is steadily expanding. 3. It can be safely stated that. . .; 4. Many discoveries happen quite unexpectedly. 5. An increasingly greater number of people become heavily involved in the problem.

Pattern 6: N V.
     1. An outline of the experimental results; to outline the present state of research. 2. A general principle is an enormous amount of experience in a compact form; the total sum amounts to 10 dollars 3. In my view. . .; this point of view is rather unusual; try to view this matter from a different standpoint. 4. The chemist's basic concern is with the structure of molecules; the development of new techniques is a matter of major concern for many countries; the problem concerns manpower training and development.

Ex. 23. Group the words of the same prefix, give Russian equivalents of the words, and explain the meaning of the prefixes.
     Predetermine, overpopulation, overestimate, postgraduate, subsonic, prehistory, underdeveloped, underestimate, postwar, oversimplify, supersonic, undergraduate, presuppose, superpose, subdivide, preview.

Ex. 24. A. Group the words according to their spelling and meaning to form two families. Give their Russian equivalents, use the dictionary if necessary.
     1. Расширение в объеме; 2. распространение в пространстве: to extend, expansively, extension, extent, to expand extensively, expansion, extensive, expansive.

     B. Make up English-Russian pairs of word groups equivalent in meaning.
     1. To extend one's visit a few days longer; 2. to expand one's knowledge; 3. an extension of analysis; 4. volume expansion; 5. to a greater extent; 6. an extensive course in English.
     1. В большой степени; 2. дальнейший анализ; 3. увеличение объема; 4. продлить визит на несколько дней; 5. курс английского языка, рассчитанный на длительное время; 6. расширить знания.

    C. In the sentences below recognize the words belonging to the above families and give their Russian equivalents.
     1. We have grounds for extending the principle of relativity to include bodies of reference which are accelerated with respect to each other. 2. The production of food to feed the expanding population of the world is even more important to mankind than the production of energy. 3. When the thermometer becomes warmer, the mercury expands, the amount of expansion measuring the temperature. 4. Computer now is an effective, efficient extension of the engineers' own skill, talent and capacity.

3. LEARN TO DEDUCE THE MEANING OF ENGLISH WORDS
(to be done at home in written form and to be discussed in class)

В разных употреблениях одного и того же слова и его производных обычно обнаруживается общий элемент смысла, который может присутствовать в нескольких русских словах. Выбор русского эквивалента определяется английским контекстом и нормой русского языка.

Ex. 25. Give adequate Russian equivalents of the italicized words.

Available, availability - общий элемент смысла: наличие в момент надобности; то, чем можно воспользоваться. Частотные русские эквиваленты: available - имеющийся в наличии, в распоряжении, доступный, годный и т. д.; availability - наличие, доступность и т. д.
     1. Future observation of these comets will surely be possible if space vehicles are available to observe them. 2. Of these substances the first three are available to the plant: carbon dioxide, water and oxygen. 3. In what follows an outline of the results available at the time of writing is given. 4. The availability of water-power makes it easy to have electricity. 5. The latter effect is due tо the non-availability of free electrons to associate with the broken bonds.

Concern - общий элемент смысла: н е п о с р е д с т в е н ное касательство, заинтересованность; обеспокоенность. Частотные русские эквиваленты: to concern - касаться, иметь отношение; беспокоить и т. д.; to be concerned with - интересоваться, заниматься; concern - отношение, касательство; забота; интерес; важность, значение и т. д.
     1. The science of crystallography concerns the enumeration and classification of all possible types of crystal structure. 2. The water shortage concerns all of us. 3. The experiments can yield some information concerning the overall correctness of the basic theories of physics. 4. The institute is also concerned with this project. 5. It is necessary to inform all those concerned with the problem. 6. So far as their essential physiological functions are concerned, there is much similarity among the plants. 7. The chemist's basic concern is with the structure of molecules and the reactions in which these structures change. 8l It is a social problem of great concern to the scientists.

Consider, consideration, considerable - общий элемент смысла: включение во внимание и учитывай и е. Частотные русские эквиваленты: to consider - рассматривать, обсуждать, обдумывать; принимать во внимание; считать и т. д.; consideration - рассмотрение, обсуждение; соображение и т. g.; considerable - значительный, важный и т.д.
     1. They have not considered the project yet. 2. The authors do not consider it necessary to include unimportant results in such a short review. 3. The present study is a reason for considering Helmholtz one of the three creators of the new scientific physiology. 4. The problem considered required further qualification. 5. No decision has been taken yet as the problem is now under consideration. 6. The problem is given a careful consideration in the next chapter. 7. All possible sources of error are taken into consideration. 8. Several considerations have influenced the decision. 9. As part of this work, considerable effort was devoted to the design of supporting facilities for research and material-testing.

Fail, failure - общий элемент смысла: невыполнение ожидаемого или должного. Частотные русские эквиваленты: to fail - терпеть неудачу; переставать действовать, выходить из строя и т. д.; to fail to do smth. - не суметь, оказаться неспособным сделать, не сделать и т.д.; failure - неудача; недостаток, отсутствие; авария, отказ в работе и т. д.
     1. In his book Prof. N. tried to succeed in what many scientists had failed before him. 2. All precautions failed to prevent the explosion. 3. Cells resulting from such division are often very small and fail to divide further. 4. Success came after many failures. 5. Planck was brought to the discovery of the quantum of energy by the failure of the classical laws to account for the properties of heat. 6. They could not complete the experiment in time because of the failure of the equipment.

Ex. 26. Compare the meanings of the three English verbs and give Russian equivalents of the italicized words.
Argue, argument - общий элемент смысла: оспаривание и/или отстаивание некой точки зрения. Частотные русские эквиваленты: to argue - спорить; аргументировать, утверждать, доказывать, приводить доводы; argument - довод, доказательство; аргументация; дискуссия и т. д.

Prove, proof - общий элемент смысла: проверка и установление истинности. Частотные русские эквиваленты: to prove - доказывать; подвергать испытанию, пробовать; (в результате) оказываться и т. д.; proof - доказательство; испытание, проверка и т. д.

Reason, reasoning - общий элемент смысла: логичность, обоснованность, разумность. Частотные русские эквиваленты: to reason - размышлять, рассуждать логически, умозаключать; обсуждать и т.д.; reason - разум, основание, соображение; причина и т. д.; reasoning - рассуждение, логический ход мысли, аргументация и т. д.

     А. 1. The author is not going to argue this point, since it is purely a matter of formal definition. 2. As early as 1897 Т. С. Chamberlain was arguing that the earth resulted from the aggregation of cold particles. 3. The argument of this article is that these discoveries are not products of pure reason, but the final outcome of a long chain of empirical research. 4. The method of inductive reasoning was established which leads from observations to general laws. 5. One can argue that modern solid-state physics is one of the fundamental areas of physics. However, the truth of such a statement cannot be proved by mere demonstrations. Many facts, postulates and axioms of the science must be reasoned both by theory and experiment. 6. If the problem of parallels could be solved, it would be proved that the fifth postulate is a theorem of absolute geometry. 7. This was the final proof of the argument. 8. I have every reason to expect you to object to this style of research. 9. There are good reasons to believe that pulsars are accelerators in which Nature makes cosmic rays. 10. The hypothesis proved to be false. 11. The proof of the pudding is in the eating.

     B. In the days before Space Age, astronomers learned to reason out an extraordinary amount of theories, hypotheses and assumptions about the sun, primarily by studying the visible light that shines from it. These investigations were important for two principal reasons. First, the sun is the heart of the solar system; second, the sun is the only star near enough to permit reasonably close observation. Therefore, it stands to reason that astronomers should focus their attention on the study of the sun's characteristics, namely, on its temperature and energy balance. For the reasons given above, modern astronomy research techniques were developed, modified and improved. These studies require a great variety of computational work, new instruments, let alone sound reasoning on the part of the space scientist, to further unravel the mysteries of the sun.

Ex. 27. In the sentences below recognize the words that are similar in meaning and give their Russian equivalents.

     A. Find three words meaning "неодинаковый".
1. Different discoveries are made in different ways. 2. They could not help admiring the landscape diversified by hills and woods. 3. They managed to grow new crystals varied in form and colour. 4. Nobody expected them to form diverse judgements upon the subject. 5. The effects of this disease are various in different cases.

     B. Find three words meaning "в настоящее время".
1. At present a considerable amount of effort is being devoted to the possible use of holography in data processing. 2. The study of relations between the galaxies is usually distinguished nowadays as the science of cosmology. 3. Currently, the development of new techniques towards the maximum exploitation of scientific and technical information is becoming a matter of major concern for many countries.

     C. Find three words meaning "главный, основной".
1. Automatic control is a major new movement in technology and an increasing force in our social, political and economic life. 2. One of the principal areas of biological research is concerned with how evolution happens and what brings it about. 3. Indeed, perhaps one of the main contributions of all five volumes is to show the English-speaking readers the work of some of their European colleagues.

4. LEARN TO ..DEDUCE THE MEANING OF WORD COMBINATIONS
(exs. 28 - 30 to be done in class; exs. 31, 32 to be done at home)

Ex. 28. Give Russian equivalents of the N'. . .N". . .Nⁿ  groups and of the hyphenated word groups.

     A. 1. A science student; a physics department (of an university); a computer project. 2. In the text to follow people who were involved in the development of the first computer, are referred to as "a computer group" or "computer people", and those who supported the idea of an accelerator, are mentioned as "accelerator enthusiasts". B. Short-range and long-range forecasts; a problem of a long-term nature; an unexpected break-through into a new field; a self-evident statement.

Ex. 29. Give Russian equivalents of the following word groups:

      1. to have room for (Earth has room for everything); 2. to give an opportunity (He was given an opportunity to continue his research); 3. to have an opportunity; 4. to throw away an opportunity (Once you have an opportunity, don't throw it away); 5. to take place (The process does not take place at such low temperatures); 6. to take into consideration (To solve the problem one must take into consideration all major factors involved); 7. to make an effort (He made no effort to rebuild the laboratory); 8..to make forecasts (It is very risky to make long-range forecasts); 9. to make smth. certain (All these factors make rapid progress in this field practically certain); 10. to present the case for (Two physicists will speak and present the respective cases for their fields of research); 11. to keep in touch (It is good for physics to keep in close touch with biology); 12. to come into being (New branches of science are coming into being); 13. to come to one's mind (An idea came to his mind of building quite a different machine); 14. to do research (He is doing research in the field of polymers); 15. to be of two minds (I don't know what to do, I am of two minds about it); 16. to be in a position (The Academy of Sciences is in a position to influence the distribution of funds); 17. to be at home (He knows the subject very well, he is quite at home in many fields); 18. to be in the forefront (Molecular biology is in the forefront of the search for knowledge).

Ex. 30. Give Russian equivalents of V. . .Adv. groups.
     1. Afterwards the field of accelerators was taken over by another organization. 2. Francis Crick got interested in molecular biology and gave up physics altogether. 3. Rain comes down upon the poor and the rich alike. 4. Scientists move upwards in the scale of complexity - they go from physics and chemistry into molecular biology.
5. There are signs of new techniques coming along.

Ex. 31. Make up English-Russian pairs of the word groups equivalent in meaning. .,
1 In some respects; 2. above all; 3. by far; 5. far and wide; 5 to come to one's mind; 6. to have a bearing on; 7 let alone;
8. rather than; 9. beyond the reach of; 10. in spite of; 11. a piece of luck; 12. in preferance to.
     1. He говоря уже о. . . (оставляя в стороне); 2. иметь отношение к; 3. вширь и вглубь; 4. прийти в голову; 5. отчасти (в некоторых отношениях); 6. намного (далеко превосходит); 7. прежде всего (более всего); 8. удача; 9. скорее чем; 10. предпочтительно; 11. несмотря на; 12. недосягаемый (за пределами досягаемости).

Ex. 32. From the list below choose the English equivalents of the italicized Russian phrases.

     A. 1. Прежде всего, нам следует обсудить этот вопрос. 2. В конце концов, это неплохой выход. 3. Во всяком случае, ваши основные положения правильны. 4. Во многом такой подход вполне оправдан. 5. Отчасти вы правы.
     anyway, after all, in some respects, first of all, in many ways.

     В. Данная проблема будет рассматриваться в целом, хотя нркоторые ее аспекты надо обсудить подробно. В частности, необходимо оценить, в какой-то степени, фактор времени.
     in detail, to some extent, as a whole, in particular.     
 
     С. Более того, существует много других возможностей для решения этой проблемы помимо только-что упомянутой.     moreover, apart from.

     D. До сих пор такой подход только осложнял решение этой проблемы которая в настоящее время требует поиска новых путей.
     so far, at present.

     E. Если взглянуть на проблему широко, то можно выделить той основных положения, которые, по мнению автора, представляются спорными. Однако, по-моему, это слишком категорическое утверждение. В научном плане может быть и неплохо, что наши возможности ограничены.
     scientifically speaking, to my mind, in the authors opinion, broadly speaking.

5. REVISE IF YOU FORGET
(to be done at home in written form)

Ex. 33. Read the text, concentrating on some, any, no, and their derivatives Give' Russian equivalents of the italicized words.

     Some people think that whatever is done in a research laboratory is sure to result in something useful. Yet every scientist knows how difficult it is to produce results of some practical value. So far no attempt has been made to work out a procedure to help us know in advance whether the output of a research may find any application somewhere some day. No scientist is quite certain, when he starts the work, of what he is going to have at the end. It happens only too often that the end product has nothing to do with what he expected. However, no effort, is ever wasted altogether. One can paraphrase the English saying "no news is good news" and say that "no positive result is also a result", sometimes even a better one than anything that was expected.

Ex. 34. Identify the structures including hat and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.

      1. That this factor is too important to be ignored does not require any further proof. 2. The main point that the author tries to make is that biology rather than physics will be in the forefront of the search for knowledge in the years to come. 3. That the leadership in high-energy physics passed to Berkeley turned out to be fortunate for the English Cambridge. 4. The only real danger for physics is that it will become too pure and isolated from the practical problems of life for young people to want to study it at all. 5. That the sun is but a typical star is one of the most significant facts of modern astronomy. 6. Moreover, human speech differs from all forms of animal speech in that it can be expressed and presented in writing. 7. That this was not the case was proved when they obtained more data.

Ex. 35. Identify the structures including what and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.

     1. What is done cannot be undone. 2. I would here refer to what I have already said about these substances. 3. This article will review what has been achieved in this field since 1951. 4. From what has been said one concludes that the results obtained depend principally on the technique employed. 5. What we want to stress is indivisibility and complexity of the environment. 6. In what may seem too precise a form, the answer is as follows. 7. What follows is extremely significant in its bearing on the problem of the relationship of physics with other sciences. 8. Much of what we do in space, much of what is expected of us strains our technology to the breaking point. 9. In this article Dyson states what may be considered three rules of managing a research laboratory. 10. What goes into a system must eventually come out.

Ex. 36. Identify the element described by "which-clause" and give Russian equivalents of which.

      1. After Von Neuman's tragic death the computer project was abandoned, which was most unfortunate for Princeton. 2. It is impossible to make a complete list of things which physicists may find interesting to do in the coming decade. 3. This idea, which was wrong at that time, is no less wrong today. 4. The other disastrous thing seems to me to be a real danger, which can be avoided, however, if we stayed diversified. 5. This technique was borrowed from physics, which is rather typical of the present-day biology. 6. The scientists expected the experiment to be completed by the end of the month, which would allow them to participate in the symposium. 7. That this comes out to be the case is a conclusive proof of the correctness of the theory. What is still doubtful is the details, which does not prevent the theory from being useful, however.

Ex. 37. A. Give English equivalents of the italicized part of the sentence using that, which or what.

     1. To, что это действительно происходит, неудивительно. 2. Трудно понять, что происходит в этот момент на самом деле. 3. То, что происходит в действительности, нельзя объяснить на основе этой гипотезы. 4. В этот момент температура резко повышается, что трудно объяснить на основе этой гипотезы. 5. В этот момент они увидели то, что ученые наблюдают очень давно, хотя и не могут объяснить природу этого явления. 6. Он приводил много фактов из жизни разных ученых, что делало его лекции очень интересными.

В. Choose English equivalents for the italicized part of the sentence from: who, which, which of, what.

     1. Трудно найти человека, который бы не задумывался над этим. 2. Это вопрос, который касается всех. 3. Трудно сказать, какая из этих проблем сложнее. 4. Необходимо решить, кто из них возглавит эту работу. 5. Трудно сказать, какие вопросы будут нас волновать через два десятка лет. 6. Никто не знает, кто первым применил это устройство. 7. Лектор сказал, какую литературу надо прочитать по этому предмету. 8. Трудно было решить, кто из них был прав.

Ex. 39. Give Russian equivalents of whether. . .Nt. . .Vf.

      1. The question is whether he will send you to the conference or go himself. 2. Whether the project will be approved at present is a matter of importance. 3. One of the fundamental questions is whether petroleum migrates over considerable distances to form pools, or whether it was formed essentially in place. 4. There was a disagreement whether they should continue along the same line or whether they should take another approach. 5. Whether this difference of approach played a decisive role in the final solution of the problem remains a subject for speculation. 6. One of the fundamental problems of today is whether we shall be able to meet the challenge of the environmental crisis.

TEXT STUDY
(to be done in class)

I. Read the introduction and answer the questions: How does the author characterize the topic of the discussion? What does the author say about the scientists contributing to the discussion? Why are physics and molecular biology chosen to represent science as a whole? Along what lines will the discussion be carried on?

INTRODUCTION

     The topic chosen for the next four items seems to suggest itself and to be undeniably exciting for any science student: the future of science - what is it likely to be? And who are more competent to make forecasts than scientists themselves? So the aim in this part is to give an opportunity for two prominent scientists, representing two major sciences - physics and molecular biology, to present the respective cases for their chosen fields of research, to point out tendencies, and to forecast foreseeable future. As these two fields are known to be in the forefront of the search for knowledge, their future development will certainly -have a direct bearing on the future of science as a whole. The contributors are the Nobel Laureate Francis Crick and professor Freeman Dyson, whose views are presented in the following items: A. Physics: Its Recent Past and the Lessons to be Learned. B. Molecular Biology in the Year 2000. C. Physics in the Next 30 Years. D. Forecasts in Science: Are They Worth Making?

II. Give Russian equivalents of: the topic. . . seems to suggest itself; . . .to present the respective cases; . . .have a direct bearing on; . . .contributor. Explain the difference between the verbs to present and to represent.

Text A. Physics: Its Recent Past
and the Lessons to Be Learned
(to be done in class and continued at home)

     I. Look through the text, divide it into an introduction and two parts in accordance with the title (time limit - 10 min.).

     1. What sort of physics are we to do between now and the end of the century? I will try to look at the next 30 years of physics
not avoiding speculation but mainly concentrating on practical questions to face us today. My remarks are sure to have a personal and Princeton flavour*, but principles should apply to anyone, anywhere. I will begin with an example from the past, which proves a forecast for 30 years to be sometimes possible and fruitful.

     2. When I came as a graduate student to the English Cambridge 24 years ago, I found most of my physicist friends cursing the name of Sir Lawrence Bragg, who had become director in 1938, the year after the death of Rutherford. By that time the younger men thought to be brilliant physicists and known to be establishing schools of their own had left the place. The leadership in high-energy physics had passed to Berkeley. But Bragg made no effort to rebuild. He did not appear to be interested in plans for a new accelerator to be developed. He said: "We have taught the world very successfully how to do nuclear physics. Now let us teach them how to do something else."

*To be influenced by the atmosphere of Princeton.

     3. The people whom Bragg was interested in supporting were thought to be a strange bunch, doing things which the high energy people would hardly consider to be physics. There was Martin Ryle, who was known to be looking for radio sources in the sky. There was Max Perutz, who was said to have spent 10 years on X-ray analysis of the structure of the haemoglobin molecule and to remark very cheerfully that in another 15 years he would have it. There was a crazy character called Francis Crick, who seemed to have lost interest in, and given up, physics altogether. The place which Bragg was to leave in 7 years had become a centre of first-class international standing in two fields of research that nowadays appear as important as high energy physics: radio astronomy and molecular biology. 4. This history of the last 30 years in Cambridge may seem to be a little oversimplified. Nevertheless we can appreciate it if we think of the important lessons which it can give us today. What are the lessons? What enabled Bragg to do so well with what looked in 1938 like a disastrous situation? Broadly speaking, he may be said to have followed three rules. The rules are:

1. Don't try to revive past glories.
2. Don't do things just because they are fashionable.
3. Don't be afraid of the scorn of the theoreticians.

     5. The last 30 years have shown us, Princeton people, to be doing not so well as Bragg did. As for the 1st rule I can say with confidence that we score high on it. We have not since 1946 had a professor working in the field of general relativity. It seemed unreasonable to expect to find anybody in this particular field as good as Einstein. On the second rule we score middling. We have always had room for some unfashionable people, but a very high percentage of our output of papers turns out to be in the fashionable part of particle physics and seems to be quite indistinguishable from the papers produced by 20 other institutes of theoretical physics. On the third rule we score extremely bad. The most original, unfashionable and worthwhile thing done by the Institute after Einstein was the design and construction of Von Neumann's prototype electronic computer, the Maniac. In the ten years after World War II the group around Von Neumann was to lead the world in ideas concerning the development and use of computers. But the snobs at our Institute could not tolerate electrical engineers walking around with their dirty hands and spoiling the purity of our scholarly atmosphere. Von Neumann was strong enough to override the opposition. But when he tragically died, they took advantage of the opportunity, and the project was given up.

     6. I always thought the failure of our computer group to be a disaster not only for Princeton but for science as a whole. It meant that at that time no academic centre existed for computer people of all kinds to get together at the highest intellectual level. The field that was abandoned was to be taken over by IBM *. Although it is a fine organization in many ways it cannot be expected to provide the atmosphere of intellectual fertility which Von Neumann managed to create here, at Princeton. We had the opportunity to do it, and we threw the opportunity away.

     7. So much for the past. What about the future? Because our computer project appeared unique and ahead of its time, I was sorry at the news of its abandonment. But I am not equally sorry at the news that our accelerator is to be abandoned next year. I believe the loss of the accelerator is likely to put Princeton into a position similar, in some respects, to that of Cambridge in 1938. We shall have an opportunity to do something different.

* IBM - International Business Machines - a U. S. computer making company.

     II. Paragraph Study.

Read paragraph 1.
      1. Identify the sentence which serves as an introduction to the text below. Identify the sentences which contain the author's characterization of the talk which he is going to give. Translate them into Russian.

Read paragraph 2.
     1. State the topic of the paragraph. Identify the structures according to patterns 21-24 and give their Russian equivalents.
2. What is meant by the place and them? 3. Characterize the situation in Cambridge after the death of Rutherford. Characterize the people who had left Cambridge by 1946 (use simple sentences).

Read paragraph 3.
     1. State the main idea of the paragraph. Identify the structures according to patterns 19, 22, 24 and give their Russian equivalents. Identify it with the noun which it stands for. 2. Characterize the people whom Bragg supported and Cambridge in 1938 (use simple sentences). 3. Give a Russian equivalent of a centre of first-class international standing.

Read paragraph 4.
     1. State the topic of the paragraph. 2. Find the words equivalent to: оценить no достоинству; катастрофический, возрождать; презрение. 3. Translate the end of the paragraph into Russian beginning with "What enabled..."

     (to be continued at home in written form)

I. Read the whole text again (without consulting the dictionary). In paragraphs 5 through 7 identify the structures according to
Patterns: 17 (3 strs), 18 (1 str.), 20 (3 strs), 21 (1 str.), 22 (4 strs), and give their Russian equivalents.

II. Paragraph Study (consult the dictionary if necessary).

Read paragraph 5.
     1. Copy out the topic sentence and the three sentences expressing the author's assessment of the situation in Princeton according to the above rules. Translate the latter sentences into Russian. 2. Copy out the words implied by the opposition and the opportunity. 3. Give Russian equivalents of: we have always had room for. . .; the most original unfashionable and worthwhile thing; the purity of our scholarly atmosphere.

Read paragraphs 6 and 7.
     1. Copy out the topic sentence of paragraph 6 and state the main idea of paragraph 7. 2. Identify the pronoun it with the nouns which it stands for and copy them out.

III. Translate paragraphs 6 and 7 into Russian.
IV. Look through the text again and say whether the author answers his opening question.

Text B. Molecular Biology in the Year 2000
(to be done in class)

I. See if you remember: to some extent; social implications; to come into being; out of the scope; arbitrarily; distinction; to borrow; in spite of; exhaustion (to exhaust); to guess.

II. Look through the text concentrating on the beginning of each paragraph and write an outline, either in Russian or in English (time limit - 10 min.).

     1. I want to consider the future of molecular biology and, to a lesser extent, of cell biology. Applied biology, or the social implications of biological research, or frontiers coming into being are out of the scope of my paper as I want to keep the discussion within reasonable limits. Long-range forecasts are hard to make indeed, but those for a period of about 25 years have often proved to be successful. This enables me (in any case) to take arbitrarily a period of 30 years which brings me nicely to the year 2000.
     2. I shall argue that there are certain general factors which make a big increase in biological knowledge during this period virtually certain. In the first place, there is a very considerable amount of manpower available, not only at present, but also on an even greater scale in the future. It is fair to say that an increasingly greater number of people in one way or another appear to be showing an interest in biology and the scope of research is steadily expanding far and wide in advanced countries. In fact, the amount of effort seems to be strongly correlated with the standard of living. Because there are many countries in the world with a standard of living which is likely to rise, we can expect more countries to start contributing to biological research. Now more and more people in all countries are found to go into biology. Moreover, we can safely state that the tendency is not only for biologists themselves to increase in number, but also for quite a lot of people to move into biology from other disciplines.

     3. An interesting distinction to be made here is between problems and techniques. For problems, scientists seem to move upwards in the scale of complexity. That is to say, they go from physics and chemistry into molecular biology and from molecular biology to cell biology and so on. For techniques, it appears to be quite a different matter, and one may find people borrowing techniques in any direction. Broadly speaking, modern biologists are quite at home using recently developed techniques emerging in physical sciences. In spite of this it is rare for biologists to leave biology and to take up problems in chemistry and physics proper.

     4. Another extremely important factor to be taken into consideration has been tremendous power of modern experimental techniques. One has only to think of such examples as chromatography, radioactive tracers, or the electron microscope (to mention only a few) to see how powerful and varied they are. A molecular biologist who would tackle any problem with the technique available before, say, 1935, is sure to give up the effort. Moreover, there is little sign of exhaustion of any one technique and still there are signs of new ones coming along - for example the use of nuclear magnetic resonance, on the one hand, and of computers, on the other. For these reasons, we can expect a massive research effort in biology.

     5. If we are to accept that most of the problems that we are concerned with today are likely to be solved by the year 2000, it is worth while considering what problems can be expected to remain unsolved. It seems to me there are subjects of a rather general nature which appear to fall into this class. I certainly expect some progress to take place in the intervening years, but I rather doubt whether we shall be in a position to see the answers in broad outline, let alone in great detail. Examples of such topics are: the origin of life on Earth; the existence of life on other worlds, and communication with other creatures in the galaxy, if we assume them to exist.

     6. Finally, one must consider the problems that are not to face us immediately, or are of such a long-term nature that we cannot expect them to be solved by the year 2000. These are by far the hardest to guess, because such problems depend partly on questions which we have not learned to ask yet. Anyway, new and unexpected developments are certain to make the whole field even more fascinating in the year 2000 than it is today.

III. Paragraph Study.

Read paragraph 1.                                                                                                                                                                                           1. State what problems are excluded from the discussion; state the author's reason for doing so and for choosing a period of 30 years. Formulate the topic of the paragraph. 2. Give Russian equivalents of to a lesser extent; the social implications of biological research; the frontiers coming into being; to take arbitrarily.

Read paragraph 2.
     1. Identify the topic sentence and state the main idea of the paragraph. Enumerate the factors mentioned by the author to support this idea. State the tendency observed in the present-day development of biology. 2. Find the guide words to the author's thought equivalent to: я берусь утверждать; во-первых; справедливо утверждать; на самом деле; более того; можно без риска утверждать. 3. Give a Russian equivalent of certain general factors. . . make increase vertually certain.

Read paragraph 3.
     1. Identify the topic sentence and state the main idea of the paragraph. Formulate the different tendencies in the development of problems and techniques in biology. Identify the words and word groups which join separate sentences into a single text and show the direction of the author's thought. 2. Give Russian equivalents of biologists are quite at home using; it is rare for biologists to take up problems in chemistry.

Read paragraph 4.
     1. Identify the topic sentence and state which of the ideas of paragraph 3 is developed in this paragraph. Identify the dominant noun and follow it through its transformations into pronouns. What conclusion does the author come to as a result of his analysis? Enumerate the reasons for this conclusion. 2. What does the author mean by the effort? 3. Find the words equivalent to: приниматься за решение проблемы; практически нет признаков того, что какая-либо методика исчерпала свои возможности.

Read paragraph 5.
     1. Identify the topic sentence. Identify the dominant noun and follow it through its transformations into its equivalents. Find the sentence containing illustrative material. 2. Give Russian equivalents of: It is worth while considering; we shall be in a position; in broad outline; let alone in great detail.

Read paragraph 6.
     1. Identify the topic sentence. Follow the dominant noun through its transformations into pronouns. How does the author characterize the problems which he considers? How does he characterize molecular biology of the future?

IV. Read the whole text again and see if any corrections should be made in the original outline. Write an abstract of the text in three sentences.

Text C. Physics in the Next 30 Years
(to be done at home in written form)

I. 1. Read the text without consulting the dictionary, pencil-mark the words that you do not understand. Make up a list of problems which the author expects physicists to be primarily concerned with in the nearest future. 2. Copy out sentences which may serve as illustrations to Patterns 13-22 (one sentence for each pattern).

     1. I begin my prognostications of the future by taking a look at what might he expected to happen in high-energy physics in the next 30 years.
     There are two main ways of doing research in this field. The rich man's way is to build accelerators, which give high, accurately controlled energy. The poor man's way is to use cosmic rays, which are known to come down upon poor and rich alike like the rain, but have very low intensity and completely uncontrolled energy. I think there is a better-than-even chance that the major discoveries of the next 30 years in high-energy physics may be expected to be made with cosmic rays. That is why I venture to say that it may be good for us, scientifically speaking, to be poor. I may easily happen to be wrong about the promise of cosmic rays physics. Going into any field of research is always a gamble. Only in this case I believe this gamble to be a reasonable one. I have heard some accelerator enthusiasts talk as if they seriously expect, by building one more machine and measuring a few more cross sections, to solve all the outstanding riddles of nature. Our experience in high-energy physics so far has taught us that there are new problems and new complexities to be disentangled every time that we extend the range of our observations. I would be disappointed if no surprises were found to remain in the vast range of energies beyond the reach of the accelerators. I hope and believe that the universe of high energies will prove to be as inexhaustible as the universe of astronomy and the universe of pure mathematics.

     2. Apart from studying cosmic rays, what else is there for physicists to do?
     An individual physicist working in close collaboration with engineers and chemists and biologists is likely to be able to make some important contributions. However, he is not to expect things which he does to be mainly physics. If he is any good, he will use his physics only as a cultural background to think about problems primarily chemical, biological or economical in nature. Accordingly, I think it would be a mistake for a physics department of a university to become heavily involved in a fashionable environmental problem, for instance, as it is violation of the 2nd of Bragg's rules. I take it as self-evident that physics will not flourish in isolation from the rest of science. In particular, it is essential for physics to keep in close touch with biology, as biology rather than physics is likely to be the central ground of scientific advance during the remainder of our century. Bragg understood this in 1946 when he put his money on Perutz and the X-ray analysis of haemoglobin in preference to a new accelerator.

     3. I think there exists a tremendous opportunity for major advances in molecular biology to be made by means of physical
techniques. But will it be good physics? I have every reason to expect you to object to this style of research saying that it may be good biology, but it is not physics. That is what many of us were saying about Bragg and Perutz in 1946. I believe we were profoundly mistaken. The idea of physics having to be pure in order to be good, was wrong in 1946 and is still wrong today. William Spohn's recent article called "Can Mathematics Be Saved" turned out to be a kind of sensation in the mathematical world. Spohn's thesis is that the purists who dominate the mathematical establishment have alienated mathematics from the rest of human culture to bring it to the danger of becoming sterile. Much of what he says is equally true if you change the title of his article to "Can Physics Be Saved?" and substitute "high-energy physics" for his "modern mathematics".
In my opinion the surest way to save physics is to keep young physicists working on the frontiers where physics overlaps other sciences, such as astronomy and biology. It is easy to give examples. One possibility known to have been much discussed by molecular biologists is the development of electron-microscope technology to the point at which the structure of individual molecules becomes directly visible. It might be possible in this way to achieve a nondestructive and rapid analysis of large molecules. . .

     4. It would be pointless for me to try to make a complete list of the important things which physicists will find interesting to do
in the coming decades. Inevitably the most exciting things are certain to be those that I haven't thought of. I myself find that the most exciting part of physics at the present moment lies on the astronomical frontier, where we have had an unparalleled piece of luck in discovering the pulsars. Pulsars turn out to be laboratories in which the properties of matter and radiation can be studied under conditions millions of time more extreme than we had previously had available to us. We do not yet understand how pulsars work, but there are good reasons to believe that they are accelerators in which Nature makes cosmic rays. Besides providing cosmic rays for the particle physicists to be able to do "cheap" physics, the pulsars are sure to provide crucial tests of theory in many parts of physics ranging from superfluidity to general relativity. . .

     5. I have tried to give here an honest evaluation of those tendencies in physics that I find to be good and bad. I am not gloomy about the future of physics. To my mind there are only two things that can be considered to be disastrous for the future of physics. One is to solve all the major unsolved problems. That would indeed be a disaster, but I do not expect it to happen in the foreseeable future. The other disastrous thing would be if we became too pure and isolated from the practical problems of life for any of the brightest and most dedicated students to want to study physics at all. This second danger seems to me to be a real one. It will not happen if we stay diversified, if we emphasize work that has important applications outside physics, and above all, if we follow Bragg's third rule: "Do not be afraid of the scorn of theoreticians".

II. Paragraph Study (consult the dictionary if necessary).

Read paragraph 1.
     1. Follow the words cosmic rays and accelerator through the text and state the main idea of the paragraph, either in English or in Russian. 2. Copy out the words equivalent to: я беру на себя смелость утверждать; в научном смысле; как будто; нерешенные загадки природы. 3. Give Russian equivalents of "to come down upon poor and rich alike like the rain"; "a better-than-even chance"; "a reasonable gamble"; "beyond the reach of"; "inexhaustible".

Read paragraphs 2 and 3.
     1. Follow the words "physicist" and "physics" through the paragraphs and make up a summary of the paragraphs in three sentences, either in English or in Russian. 2. Copy out the words equivalent to: то, чем он занимается; в этой связи; я считаю само собой разумеющимся; остальная наука; а не. . .; настоящая физика; господствуют в мире математики. 3. Give Russian equivalents of: if he is any good; as a cultural background; to become heavily involved in a problem; to be the central ground of scientific advance; (they) have alienated mathematics from the rest of human culture to bring it to. . .; much of what he says; to develop to the point at which. . .

Read paragraph 4.
     1. Copy out the sentence in which the author assesses the future development of physics. Follow the word pulsars through the paragraph and copy out their characteristics given by the author.

Read paragraph 5.
     1. Copy out the characteristics of the two dangerous situations which physicists may face in the future.

III. Translate paragraphs 4 and 5 into Russian.

IV. Make up a list of words that you have looked up in the dictionary and give their contextual Russian equivalents.

Text D. Forecasts in Science: Are They Worth Making?
(to be done in class)

     1. Mr. A. Do you think these forecasts in science are really worth making?
     Mr. B. Yes, I certainly do. But to begin with, we are first to agree as to what is a period of time over which it is useful to make them.
     Mr. A. Well, I admit that short-range forecasts for periods up, to say, 5 or 10 years ahead, have often proved to he correct. However, mistakes are not uncommon either.
     2. Mr. B. You are quite right and the example to come naturally to one's mind is that of the structure of proteins. After the haemoglobin structure was discovered, the structure of another protein was expected to take another 10 years to be solved. In fact, it took only 5 years.
     Mr. A. Yet it is certainly not to be concluded from this that things always happen more rapidly than they are expected to. Some took longer than predicted.
     Mr. B. Moreover, quite a lot of discoveries happen quite unexpectedly. To cite but one example, remember the prediction of a "positive" electron by Dirac. Such things are not likely to be even thought of before the discovery is actually made.
     3. Mr. A. As for long-range forecasts, they don't seem to be worth making at all.
     Mr. B. Well, I am of two minds about them. After all, what we try to do is to foretell a general tendency rather than a particular development. But no doubt, such forecasts may sometimes prove quite wrong. The rate of our knowledge growth is sure to increase in the years to come, as it is known to be proportional to the total knowledge already accumulated. And this is the first and most important factor to be taken into consideration when we make any prognosis.

Tape 1.

I. Listen to the following words and expressions:

1. forecast - прогноз; 2. it is worth making - стоит делать; 3. to agree as to - договориться о;
4. up to 5 years - до 5 лет; 5. short-range forecast - краткосрочный прогноз;. 6. it is not uncommon - весьма обычно.

II. Listen to the words and expressions again and repeat them after the speaker. Write them down.

III. Listen to passage 1 and answer the questions:

1. What are we first to do in making forecasts? (Key: We are first to agree as to what is a period of time over which it is useful to make them.) 2. What is the usual period of time over which it is useful to make forecasts? (Key: a period of up to 5 or 10 years ahead.) 3. Have short-range forecasts always proved to be correct? (Key: No, they have not. Mistakes are not uncommon.)

IV. Listen to the passage, sentence by sentence, and repeat them after the speaker.

Tape 2.

I. Listen to the following words and expressions:
I. to come to one's mind - приходить на память; 2. protein - белок; 3. to expect - ожидать; 4. it takes 10 years - требуется 10 лет; 5. to predict - предсказывать; 6. actually - в действительности.

II. Listen to the words and expressions again and repeat them after the
speaker. Write them down.

III. Listen to passage 2 and answer the questions:

1. Did the forecast about the time of discovery of the protein structure prove to be correct? (Key: No, it did not.) 2. What was the forecast about the time of discovery of the structure of another protein? (Key: 10 years.) 3. How long did it actually take to discover the structure of another protein? (Key: It took only 5 years.) 4. What conclusion is not to be made at once? (Key: That things always happen more rapidly than they are expected to.) 5. What is the final point made about discoveries? (Key: Moreover, quite a lot of discoveries happen quite unexpectedly.) 6. What words are relevant to the idea of "forecast?" (Key: to expect, to predict, it is not unlikely.)

IV. Listen to the passage, sentence by sentence, and repeat them after the speaker.

Tape 3.

I. Listen to the following words and expressions:

1. long-range forecast - долгосрочный прогноз; 2. to be of two minds - не иметь определенного мнения; 3. after all - в конце концов; 4. to foretell - предсказывать; 5. growth - рост; 6. in the years to come - в последующие годы; 7. to take into consideration - учитывать.

II. Listen to the words and expressions again and repeat them after the speaker. Write them down.

III. Listen to passage 3 and answer the questions:
1. What is the most important factor to he taken into consideration in forecasting? (Key: The rate of our knowledge growth is sure to increase in the years to come.) 2. What international words does the speaker use? (Key: tendency, proportional, accumulated, factor, prognosis.) 3. What words show that "a general tendency" and "a particular development" are in opposition? (Key: rather than.) 4. What words show that the author is certain about his views? (Key: no doubt, is sure, it is known.)

IV. Listen to the passage, sentence by sentence, and repeat them after the speaker.

Laboratory Work

Listen to the dialogue, write it down, hand it over to the teacher for checking up, learn it by heart.