GRAMMAR: MODALITY AS THE AUTHOR'S ATTITUDE
TOWARD WHAT HE HAS TO SAY. TOPIC: MAN AND THE UNIVERSE.

STRUCTURE STUDY:
1. Modal Verbs and Their Message (Pattern 23).
2. Modal Structures (Patterns 24 - 26).

WORD STUDY:
1. English-Russian Word Relation.
2. Word Structure (un-, in-/im-/il-/ir-, dis-, mis-, -ous, en-, -en, N ** V).
3. Word Meaning (effect, project, single, to travel, modal adverbs).
4. Word Combinations.
5. Structure Words (a/an/the, after, before,-since, as, for, provided/
providing, once, unless, until, lest).

TEXT STUDY
Introduction
Text A. Search for Extraterrestrial Life (for class-room reading and analysis, and for home translation).
Text В. А 200-Year Trip in 20 Years (for class-room comprehension reading).
Text С Flights of Fancy: Science Fact and Science Fiction (for home practice in different reading skills).
Text D. Calling All Stars: Interview Broadcast into the Universe (for class-room practice in understanding spoken English).

STRUCTURE STUDY                        

1. MODAL VERBS AND THEIR MESSAGE

Pattern Study (23)

Paftern
... N_j. . V_mod...Inf. _{without to} ...

1) To be a successful scientist one must, at the very least, be able to ask questions. To be a successful scientist, it is necessary, at the very least, for one to be able to ask questions.
Для того чтобы добиться успеха в науке, необходимо по меньшей мере уметь задавать вопросы.

2) If there was someone to put a question there must be someone, sooner or later, to answer it. If there was someone
to put a question it is almost certain that there will be someone to answer it.
Если нашелся кто-то, кто задал вопрос, наверняка найдется и тот, кто рано или поздно на него ответит*.

Pattern Practice (23)

Ex.1. Read the texts. Recognize modal verbs, and choose the proper Russian equivalents from the lists below.

     A. If we are to fly to other planets we shall have to design a gigantic spacecraft. The conditions there must be as close to those of the Earth as possible so that we will not have to worry about all the usual hardships of space travel.
The capability of man as a space researcher should be the subject of close examination. The problem of overload is to come first. Depending on its direction it is to be classified as longitudinal, transverse, or perpendicular. Next, the problem of weightlessness is to be considered.

Each spaceman must know the design of his own craft, and he must be able to maintain the systems during the flight. If some unforeseen situation develops he should know where to look for the breakdown, and should be able to remove its cause if the crew is to feel confident during the flight and experiments.
     должен, должны; пришлось, придется; принято, захотим, стремимся, нужно; следует.

B. Planets like the Earth must be quite common. A question arises: what sort of life might exist within our own solar system
other than that on the Earth? It is possible that simple forms of life may exist on Mars. Most astronomers would agree that they are not to find any intelligent life on the other planets that circk our sun.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
* Примеры на все модальные глаголы с неперфектным инфинитивом даны в виде табл. 1, с перфектным - в виде табл. 2.

     Intelligent life might exist on other worlds. If wonderful civilizations exist among the stars, it is only natural that human beings would want to visit them, or at least to communicate with them. But mankind may never be able to journey there to meet the inhabitants because of the enormous distances involved. No wonder the problem of intelligent life on other worlds should be so exciting!
     должно быть; не суждено; должна быть; возможно; могла бы; не исключено; не в состоянии; по-видимому; естественно.

     C. Read the beginning of the sentences, and translate them into Russian choosing the proper Russian equivalents of the modal verbs from the list below.
1. It has to be admitted that. . . 2. One can conclude that. . . 3. It will be remembered that. . . 4. It is to be stated that. . .
5. It should be stressed that. . . 6. One would expect that. . 7. It must be borne in mind that. . . 8. One may think that. . .
     можно, необходимо, естественно, есть основания, приходится, следует, нужно.

     D. Choose the proper Russian equivalents of modal, verbs with negation from the list below.
1. The method is not to be recommended. 2. It may or may not be the case. 3. You must not criticise your ideas while inventing them. 4. They need not be counted. 5. One does not have to accept this viewpoint. 6. The fact cannot be denied. 7. The instrument should not be relied upon. 8. The calculation won't agree with the observation. 9. The theory might not be valid for these conditions.
     возможно и не; нельзя; необязательно; возможно не; не следует; упорно не (никак не); не надо; ничто не вынуждает; нет оснований.

Ex. 2. A. Use the proper verb basing on the arguments in brackets.
1. There. . . be a mistake in the calculation (because the author cannot think of any other explanation of the result obtained). 2. Any creature from an outer civilization . . . appear alien to us (because this is the author's personal viewpoint). 3. There were no universities in Greece at all, there were schools. A philosopher . . . have a school and a few men . . . come and listen to his lectures (because such was the tradition, the pattern of behaviour). 4. They knew that the project ... be abandoned in a few months (because such was the decision taken or agreement made). 5. At that time it was not certain that the problem of overload ... be overcome at all (because it was not possible to produce necessary conditions). 6. A single good idea . . . sometimes give rise to a series of hypotheses (because there is a chance that this will be so). 7. Most scientists believe that to make contacts with outer intelligent beings man . . . not leave the Earth (because there are other possible ways of making contacts than travelling). 8. As soon as these results were published the theory ... be revised (because it could not account for the new effect observed).

    B. Read the text. Substitute the proper English modal verbs for the Russian words in brackets.
Those who wish to become students at the university (обязаны) take their entrance examinations. Recruitment of students to the university follows certain procedures which no one (разрешено) ignore If a perspective student is ill and (не в состоянии) appear before the examination board he (надлежит) present a medical certificate to this effect, in which case the examination (приходится) be postponed. Another rule is that no student (не должен) be late for his examination. Also, students (не должны) argue with the examination board, although this is not a regular rule, but rather wise advice. However, whether they strictly observe the rules or not, there are always people who (могут) fail in their examinations and those who (обычно) succeed. This (всегда была, и будет) be the situation at all times.

Ex. 3. Grammar in proverbs. Translate these sentences into Russian and suggest Russian sayings of similar meaning.
1. Friends may meet, but mountains never. 2. A fool may ask more questions than a wise man can answer. 3. Who seeks blows shall perish by blows. 4. He who would search for pearls must dive below. 5. What can't be cured must be endured. 6. What's done cannot be undone. 7. If we can't as we would, we must do as we can.
8. People who live in glass houses should .not throw stones.
9. The beggar may sing before the thief. 10. None so deaf as those who won't hear. 11. You may lead a horse to water but you can't make it drink. 12. Bad seed must produce bad corn. 13. Accidents will happen. 14. It would make even a cat laugh.
15. The cat would eat fish but would not wet her feet.

Ex. 4. Read an excerpt from the article by Academician Artzimovich concentrating on the modal words and compare English and Russian means of expressing the author's attitude.

Ex. 5. A. Read another excerpt from the article by Academician Artzimovitch, which continues the discussion of science politics. Identify the structure according to Pattern 23 and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.

      Approaching the problem from another side, we may ask in which areas of modern science the country should at all costs strive for supremacy and why supremacy in it is of such necessity now or in the near future. Should equal investments be made all along the broadest possible front of modern science - from the study of the farthest galaxies to the biochemistry of micro-organisms - or should a concentration of force be applied at several points only? If we recognize that information on new scientific findings is exchanged very rapidly, no matter whence it emanates, it may be adequate in some fields to carry on a minimum of research, without contesting for a supremacy that might be very costly. At what level should explorations of this type proceed?

     Not only must these questions be answered - someone must decide them. Government's role in science is principally to do this. In fulfilling it, government need not interfere in research itself, which would be as senseless as coaching a football player during a game by holding his foot.

     In the context of these comments, I cannot undertake to discuss the concrete means through which the government can develop its science politics. They have to be founded on an assessment of many factors, including the obvious ones of the immediate practical value of the research results, the material costs of the investment in the research, and the effects on the international competition in science and the concomitant problem of prestige.

     B. Read the text and identify the structures according to Pattern 23. Give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.

     According to some authors, intelligent life on any planet should develop exponentially, with all the curves going infinitely upwards.

     The Earth's civilization has already reached a stage at which we have to admit that, with this trend of development, mankind may face a really grave critical situation in the future, as the resources of this planet are inherently exhaustible.

     What alternative is mankind to choose under these circumstances, in order to survive as a civilization? Undoubtedly, an end must be put to the anarchic development of the productive forces, to the uncontrolled growth of the population, to the barbarous treatment of nature. Naturally these urgent tasks facing the world can be successfully accomplished only with the establishment of a scientifically organized world community, that is, with the triumph of communism throughout the world. Yet, until then, no effort should be spared in trying to handle the present-day situation as best we can.
It is already obvious that the continuing growth of the productive forces would, before too long, make this planet unsuitable for life as a result of heat and waste pollution of the environment, overpopulation and the like. This prospect makes some authors in the West speak of an urgent need to put a stop to unbounded development of the productive forces and establishing a stringent control over them.

     However, it can hardly be imagined that a civilization (the Earth's civilization, for one) would consciously restrict itself to a purely qualitative development and abstain from any quantitative    expansion. Such a situation    would seem most improbable
indeed. For example, can a decree be passed that space exploration shall be abandoned and no use shall be made of potentially unlimited resources which are to be found outside this planet? Or, who should ban utilizing outer space for accommodating the industries adversely affecting the Earth's ecology? Clearly, once brought to life by the technological progress, space exploration cannot' be discontinued and is to be carried on for the benefit of those living on the planet Earth.

Pattern Practice (23)

Ex. 6. Identify the modal verbs followed by perfect and non-perfect infinitive and give Russian equivalents of the predicates.

1. In the past the island must have been inhabited by some primitive tribe but now it has obviously been deserted. 2. The Moon, with its soft surface like damp sand, might have been designed for descending spacecraft. 3. Under such an assumption they ought to have arrived at completely different conclusions. At least they might have. 4. With our present-day technology such phenomena could not have been observed in the laboratory; what was registered must, in fact, have been due to some malfunctioning of the recorder. 5. It is difficult to figure out what actually happened. They may have changed their minds at the last moment and may have set out in a different direction. Or else, they might be repelled by the idea of loneliness, and could have made an attempt to return. 6. According to his hypothesis, individual men could have covered the distance between the two continents but would never have risked to take their families along. 7. His idea was that these cosmic objects should have originated under such harsh conditions that no analogy might be valid.

if -если;        if it were not for		если бы не
even if -даже если;    but for

Pattern 26a:

. . .that. . . N₁. . .(should). . .Inf._{without to}...

Situation I

It has been suggested It is necessary		that	an end (should) be put to the barbarous treatment of nature.
Предлагается Необходимо			положить конец варварскому обращению с природой.
Situation II
Some scientists suggest | that It is probable		that	intelligence should develop on any planet where conditions are reasonably favourable for it.
Некоторые ученые предполагают, Вполне вероятно,		что	разумная жизнь должна возникнуть (вероятно, возникает) на любой планете, где для этого существуют достаточно благоприятные условия.

Pattern 26b:

. .that*. .N₁...(should). . .Inf._{wuhout to}
._______________________
* Or so that, in order that; lest. 106

Situation l

In the hostile environment of space the astronaut must take precautions lest he (should) be affected by radiation. В неблагоприятной среде космического пространства космонавт должен обязательно принимать меры предосторожности, чтобы не подвергаться воздействию радиации.

Pattern 26с:

. . .if..N₁...should. . .Inf._{wuhout to}

Situation II

If you should travel in a spaceship, you would have to get used to weightlessness. Если бы вы вдруг оказались в космическом корабле, вам пришлось бы привыкать к невесомости.

Pattern Vocabulary (26). List 12

Remember the conjunctions used in Pattern 26.

26a, 26b: that - что; чтобы. . .
                 so that - так, чтобы. . .
                 in order that - для того, чтобы. . .
                 lest - чтобы не. . .
        26с: if - если
        in case - в случае, если. . .

provided providing

при условии, что. . .

Pattern Vocabulary (26). List 13

Remember some of the words commonly used in the principal clause which introduces Pattern 26.

Situation I - Initiation of N. . .V.

1. Verbs of initiation:

2. Adjectives used as predicatives:

advisable - it is advisable - желательно, рекомендуется desirable - it is desirable - желательно essential - it is essential - существенно important - it is important - важно necessary - it is necessary - необходимо urgent - it is urgent - безотлагательно

чтобы...

Situation II - Assessment of probability of N. . .V.

1. Verbs of estimation and emotion:

to be afraid to fear

опасаться, бояться;

to be sorry - сожалеть;
to be surprised - удивляться;

to suggest to suppose

предполагать, допускать.

2. Adjectives used as predicatives:

annoying - it is annoying curious - it is curious extraordinary - it is extraordinary inevitable - it is inevitable likely - it is likely natural - it is natural possible - it is possible probable - it is probable strange - it is strange surprising - it is surprising

- неприятно   - любопытно   - поразительно   - неизбежно   - похоже   - естественно   - возможно   - вероятно   - странно   - удивительно

что

Pattern Practice (26)

Ex. 10. Look through lists А, В, С and make up various meaningful sentences according to Pattern 26.

     A. It seems inevitable; measures must be taken; they insisted on this procedure; they were afraid; they suggested; it is desirable; it would be only natural; it is strange; it is suggested; it is recommended; a suggestion was made.
     B. That; lest; in case; so that; in order that; if.
     С. Someone should object to this project; a search for extra terrestrial life should be continued; the space researcher should be physically fit; the technique should prove suitable for the purpose; some primitive people should inhabit the place; he should change his mind on the problem; any society should experience ups and downs in its development.

Ex. 11. Identify the structures according to Pattern 26 and give Rustian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.

1. The principle of relativity requires that the law of conservation of energy should hold relative to every "Galilean" system of coordinates. 2. Newton suggested that light be interpreted as a stream of particles. 3. It was suggested that the atmospheric and temperature ranges of those planets should be different from those of the Earth. 4.. The instruments were packed carefully lest they should be damaged during transportation. 5. Flying knowledge is necessary for a cosmonaut so that he be able to control a spaceship. 6. The first Soviet cosmonauts made their flights in order that the scientists should get answers to many fundamental questions concerning space. 7. It is quite possible that a radio message from civilizations on some of the planets should reach the Earth. 8. It was quite natural at that time that research and its propagation should be done by the same people. 9. In case we should receive a message from an intelligent society, we must be prepared in advance how to respond. 10. If such a fundamental principle should prove invalid for at least one set of conditions, we will find ourselves in a very unattractive situation.

Reading Practice (26)

Text 11.

1) Read the text to yourself and be ready for a comprehension check-up.

PROBING THE UNIVERSE

     Until quite recently man had no way of looking into space except through optical telescope. Optical astronomy enriched science with profound knowledge of the Universe . But for radio-astronomy, however, we should have never made such new remarkable discoveries in the Universe as pulsars, radio galaxies, etc.

     It should be emphasized that thanks to radio-astronomy, astronomers have detected several dozen chemical compounds in the gas and dust clouds of interstellar space. It is desirable that theorists and experimenters should try to figure out how these compounds were made. It is believed that when gas atoms collide with the dust, they would stick. The dust seems to act as if it were a collector of atoms and facilitated their combination.

     Further progress in radio-astronomy will demand that scientists should take more and more advantage of instrumented satellites and should set up observatories on the Moon and on planets so that they could carry out continuous observation of space. In general, with longer observing times and with the help of cosmic laboratories, the sensitivity of detecting far-away bodies and chemical compounds would increase. More cosmic information would be obtained.
If use were made of such facilities as, these, the next decade or so would reveal the richest rewa     rds of space science.

2) Check up for comprehension.
1. What are the latest discoveries in astronomy due to? 2. What is the actual contribution of radio-astronomy to science? 3. What is the hypothesis of the formation of chemical compounds in space? (What makes you think that this is a hypothesis?) 4. What are the prospects of the nearest future development in the field?

3) Give Russian equivalents of: look out into space; but for radio-astronomy; thanks to radio-astronomy; should try to figure out; they would stick; continuous observation; the richest rewards of space science.

Ex. 12. Identify two modals different in meaning and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
1. Mankind might never be able to journey there because of the enormous distances involved. 2. To attain these speeds one may have to overcome such difficulties as would make the whole project completely unrealistic. 3. Their ships would have to be larger than ocean liners, so that generations of crewmen could succeed each other on board. 4. The distances to be covered are so enormous that mankind might have to wait many a decade until this is possible. 5. It may be wrong to think that man is the only living being in the universe who should be able to grasp physical laws of nature. 6. As a result of these routine space flights we may be able to solve some urgent problems here on the Earth.

Ex. 13. Learn to distinguish between modal and auxiliary to have and to be. State their function and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.

1. The argument is that by that time the resources of the planet may have been exhausted and man may have had to leave the Earth in search of another habitable place. 2. To get anywhere and back in a lifetime the speed would have to be very high so as to take advantage of the relativistic change in clock rates. 3. The maximum value which is to be expected is only reached in the range of variables used in the tests. 4. If Mars were to be a testing ground for our notions about the origin of life, we should avoid using these same notions to conclude in advance that Mars is lifeless. 5. As it is true of every author, we have had to be a little arbitrary in deciding what to include and what to omit. 6. In order to write a story about the future one had to have some notion of what the future held in store and in what approximate time period it was to take place. 7. If we were to build a scale model with the Earth as a ball 100 feet in diameter, this ocean would be less than half an inch deep.

Ex. 14. Learn to understand the difference between can and may, and would and should. Explain the author's choice of the modal verb in the following sentences:

1. You may lead a horse to water but you can't make it drink. 2. Electric irons could be dangerous: they might give you a severe shock. 3. If you left at ten you should arrive in time. If you left at nine you certainly would. 4. I think this shouldn't be difficult. As a matter of fact, I think this would be easy. 5. In his orderly fashion Aristotle pointed out that each element had its natural place in the universe, each occupying its own sphere. Since the centre of Aristotle's universe was the planet Earth, the sphere of "earth", the most compact of the four elements was naturally the solid sphere of the Earth itself. Surrounding "earth" and covering it almost' entirely was a spherical shell of water, and surrounding the water was a spherical shell of air. So much even the most cursory observations would support. Fire was more difficult. According to Aristotle's line of reasoning, fire should form a spherical shell around the air. 6. If the house caught fire, I know what I should do but I'm not sure what I would do. 7. If by any chance you should be interested, I would be glad to send you a copy of my book.

Pattern Revision (24 - 26)
(to be done at home in written form)

Ex. 15. Translate the following sentences into Russian. Mind modal structures.

1. If the Earth were stationary, the movement of the atmosphere would be controlled almost entirely by temperature differences. 2. It is strange that these two projects originating at twp different laboratories should resemble each other in such details. 3. Modern research in space requires that a scientist should be informed about the main investigations in adjacent areas. 4. The martianologists of the 19th century and the early 20th would have been quite shocked if they had learned that the surface of Mars was as heavily created as that of the Мооn 5. Some people have proposed that the General Theory of Relativity should be abandoned, and replaced with something less eccentric. 6. Even if Kepler had accepted Tycho's theory, in order to solve the triangle, he would still have needed to know the direction of the line between Mars and the Sun. 7. If it were not for the earth's gravitation, the satellites would move through airless space in a straight line and at a uniform speed. 8. It has been suggested that new knowledge and experience recently obtained should provide a sound basis for further space exploration. 9. But for the rapid development of computer techniques and automation in our scientific age, space research would have never made such great progress. ,10. Suggestions have been made that entire colonies of astronauts should set out on journeys to the stars that would last for centuries. 11. Millions of television viewers in the remotest corners of the Far North, Siberia and Far East would not have watched Moscow TV programmes if it had not been for the Molnija communication satellites. 12. Some astronomers believe that we had better be continuously "listening" to the outer cosmos lest we should miss a message from a far-away civilization. 13. The problem of environment is not to be treated as if it were of local concern for this or that country. 14. Even if such an apparatus should be developed, this would not solve the problem of travelling beyond the solar system. 15. Every spacecraft is equipped with emergency systems so that the crew should feel safe and confident during the flight.

General Revision
(to be done at home in written form)

Ex. 16. Translate the following sentences into Russian. 1. It would be wrong to .think , that the intellectual capacities of an individual are inexhaustible. One should never waste one's talent; time may come when one might need it. 2. In order to contribute to the survival of man, as well as to protect him from possible adverse effects of his productive activity, science must be a man-centered system. 3. It is suggested that in the past the conditions on such planets should have been so different from anything familiar to us that we cannot actually judge by analogy. 4. At present scientists and engineers are designing spacecrafts which are to operate for months and years in the outer cosmos under very severe conditions to us that we cannot actually judge by analogy. 4. At present scientists and engineers are designing spacecrafts which are to operate for months and years in the outer cosmos under very severe conditions. 5. It is obvious that to achieve high intelligence the conditions there would have to be extraordinarily favourable. 6. In any field, in order to succeed in one's career one should treat one's job as if it were of primary significance for mankind. And this is what a good worker would do, whether consciously or unconsciously. 7. It is only natural that different researchers should approach the same problem differently. 8. If one were asked what| was responsible for Kepler's discoveries, one undoubtedly would have to admit the role of chance or luck, or, as Kepler would have said. Providence. 9. These various explanations are not necessarily mutually exclusive, and it might 1 well be that the observed fluctuations are due to a combination of effects. 10. For unmanned planetary exploration the ideal guidance and control system would be one that could appreciate, the, environment and change the system's world of operation to meet changing conditions. 11. We can expect that the planets surrounding stars older than the Sun would contain societies more advanced than ours, societies which must have mastered the techniques of radio communication and harnessed the power of transmitting signals over great distances. 12. But for space meteorological stations we would not be able to observe the formation and directions of hurricanes. 13. When something has been discovered it cannot be undiscovered. We have to live with the consequences of our discoveries. 14. Even if any living organisms could have existed on the planet at an earlier stage they ought to have disappeared. 15. Such evidence has to be disregarded, even if it cannot be accounted, for, in the hope that it will eventually turn out to be false or irrelevant. 16. To meet this deficiency Sommerfield advanced in 1915 the suggestion that electrons need not revolve necessarily in circular orbits. 17. Why should slides at most lectures be shown upside down or sideways? 18. Nowadays a young scientist undergoes a very extended preparation before he may take a place of more or less equal standing with other scientists. 19. For genius, the crucial factor is to be born at the right time. If he might, genius, should choose the morning time of his science or a period of brewing revolution in it. 20. Let us examine the proposition, that only Shakespeare could have formulated the semantic structure represented by "Hamlet". 21. The reader will have noticed that the notation has been somewhat changed. 22. It is still debatable whether Mercury possesses an atmosphere or not. Under present conditions it would retain oxygen and heavier gases, but in the past when it was presumably hotter even than now, all gases except the very heaviest would have streamed off into space. 23. Weeler suggests that a time ought to come when chemistry and physics unite under a banner bearing the motto "multum ex pravo" meaning that vast ideas can emerge from tiny and subtle observations. 24. All the matter in the Universe would have been burned to helium before the first galaxies started to condense and no normally long-lived stars would have had a chance to be born. 25. Subject to your approval, we have agreed that we may have an interview which will be televised. The broadcasting companies understand, of course, that it's Tip to you to agree to this arrangement, and they have an alternate program ready which can be substituted if you should object. 26. If the distance to the star were known, its light power would be judged from its apparent brightness. 27. You can't get hot water and cold water out of the same pipe at the same time. 28. It has been claimed that the observation cannot have been in error.

WORD STUDY

1. LEARN TO RECOGNIZE INTERNATIONAL WORDS
(to be done in class)

Ex. 17. A. Make up English-Russian pairs of the words equivalent in meaning.
1. Favourable; 2. guide; 3. operate; 4. unprecedented; 5. accurate; 6. specific; 7. actually; 8. horizon.
1. Точный; 2. горизонт; З. направлять; 4. оперировать с чем-то, работать; 5. небывалый; 6. действительно; 7. благоприятный; 8. специфический, определенный.

     В. Give Russian equivalents of the following:
the normal culmination of evolution; technical civilization; extremely numerous planetary systems; civilized human communities; to communicate with wonderful civilizations; a major fraction of the speed of light; attractive resources; observed uranium explosions, fantastic Cybernetica planet; empirical manner; conversion of fiction into fact; a distant galaxy; radio-controlled photography; the idea inspired by observations; a quarter of a century; specified data; activated by automatic control as a result of electronic information; accurate results; alternative method; to identify the phenomenon; effective technique, routine procedure; in an intelligent way (manner); ultimate load.

2. LEARN TO RECOGNIZE THE STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS
(to be done at home in written form *)

Ex. 18. Recognize the words formed according to the following patterns and give their Russian equivalents.

Pattern 12: un-/in- (ir-, il-, im-)+Root **
Example: visible - видимый, invisible - невидимый.

__________________________________________________________________________________
* Except ex. 20, which is preferably done in class.
** Root условно означает ту часть слова, которая остается после вычленения аффикса.

1. We must dismiss this unattractive possibility. 2. Undoubtedly we will have to discover some unsuspected way of travelling to distant stars. 3. The universe appears to be inexhaustible. 4. This is by, no means impossible. 5. They may use a technique unlike our own. 6. The joke was first published in the Journal of Irreproducible! Results. 7. The problem of extraterrestrial life is undeniably exciting.

Pattern 13: dis-+Root
Example: advantage - преимущество, disadvantage - недостаток.

1. Different authors appear to disagree as to the possible cause of the effect. 2. Theory serves to discourage the waste of time on making useless experiments. 3. They had to discontinue this practice. 4. Each time there are more complexities to be disentangled. 5, This brought still more disorder into the chaos already existing.

Pattern 14: mis-+Root
Example: lead - вести, mislead - вводить в заблуждение.

1. This is a misleading statement. 2. First miscalculation, and then misinterpretation, of the results led to a complete misunderstanding among the research group. 3. Misprints are sometimes even more annoying than actual mistakes. 4. The title of the article is "The Use and Mis-Use of Science".

Pattern 15: Root+ -ous Adj.
Example: danger - опасность, dangerous - опасный.

A disastrous situation; a famous scientist; a continuous observation, a fortuitous combination of a large brain and a toolholding hand; numerous stars; an enormous distance.

Pattern 16: Root+ -ate V/Adj.
Example: to complicate - осложнять; accurate - точный.

1. In many cases it took some time before the discovery was appreciated. 2. To eliminate systematic error one has to take into account all these factors. 3. We have to remember not only about possible immediate results but also about the ultimate consequences as well. 4. One must study thoroughly the intricate interaction of all the associated processes. 5. They are looking for an adequate interpretation of this process.

Pattern 17: (en-)+Adj./N+(-en) V
Example: large - большой, to enlarge - увеличивать; tight - крепкий, to tighten - скреплять.

1. Mis-use of science may endanger human civilization. 2. This would enable us to handle the situation. 3. The opposite of └to discourage" people is └to encourage" them. 4. It is unreasonable to widen the gap already existing. 5. His task is to ensure favorable conditions for experimentation. 6. One way to increase the efficiency of the plant is to enrich the fuel with oxygen.
7. . . .to broaden the horizon and to strengthen our belief in the inexhaustibility of nature.

Pattern6:

N

V

1. The context is a guide to the meaning of the words. While one of the crew remains in orbit two astronauts guide the Lunar Module to a soft landing. 2. The astronauts were going to sample the rocks and minerals of the-Moon surface. The recent failure ii Appollo 13 means that investigators will have to wait for samples a little longer. 3. The sound was hardly audible. It sounds like a very good idea. 4. People living on other worlds may look quite different. In that novel the author peopled the planets with strange creatures. 5. Multi-storeyed houses have a magnificent look. The spaceman was housed in a small cabin. 6. "We can expect no favour from nature." They favour this approach.

Pattern 6a: Adj. V

1. Separate the two substances and then analyse them. The results of two separate experiments may differ considerably.
2. When you complete the analysis, compare the results obtained with the reference table. The table is not complete yet.

Ex. 19. From the list below choose the English equivalents for the Russian words in brackets.

1. It is hardly possible that man should ever reach some other planet in some (невероятно) far distant solar system. 2. (По-видимому) the first sign that life exists among the stars may be radio signals. 3. Intelligence (несомненно) has important survival value. 4. Intelligence is (якобы) in the cards for any planet. 5. Human civilization has (как можно предположить) experienced many ups and downs. 7. (Общепризнанно) at present human culture is in an unprecedented state of rapid development. 8. (Можно думать, что) a long series of special circumstances were necessary to develop the human combination of a large brain and a tool-holding hand.

apparently, presumably, admittedly, allegedly, conceivably, undoubtedly, incredibly.

Ex. 20. The following is a joke from the Journal of Irreproducible Results. Read the text and try to appreciate its humour, bearing in mind that the italicized words are somehow connected with the names of the scientists mentioned and their contributions to science. Can you establish the connection?

A COCKTAIL PARTY

     The following is a brief report of a cocktail party following a three day symposium on the History of Physics. The reporter made every effort to record the comments and mannerism of many distinguished participants very accurately. The party was well under way, everyone busily discussing the previous three days of infinitely long presentations. A feeling of relief permeated the group now that it was all over. Down by the pool, Cherenkov was positively glowing. Marie and Pierre Gurrie smiled at each other radiantly while the Greek delegation led by Democritis sat stoically, except for Archimedes, who was immersed in thought. Several couples were magnetically drawn toward Gauss who was following Eddison's current story.

     Meanwhile, on the Hill this heated exchange: "How is it emitted and adsorbed?" asked Max Born particularly. "Does it travel as a wave"? asked Einstein lightly. "Can it explain diffraction?" interfered Tom Young. "Possibly", reflected Huygens. "But is that the principle we're after?" questioned Heisenberg uncertainly. "Let's get back to temperature", Lord Kelvin absolutely shouted. "Yes", agreed To-ricelli mercurially. "No, no", interjected Planck constantly. "Let's get to the elements", postulated Euclid. "It's really quite elementary" repeated Mendeleev periodically. "What a wonderful symposium!" said Archimedes buoyantly.

Ex. 21. Fill in the blanks with the proper words from the lists below.

I. 1. World science is faced with the all-important task of finding effective. . . of protecting the biosphere from pollutants. 2. The data available to man concerning the physical phenomena of space may not be very exciting to those who can't interpret their ... 3. Natural scientists are so interested in their self-made problems that they tend to neglect the problems that are most ... for human life. 4. The name atom comes from the Greek word and . . . indivisible. 5. The information on the physical phenomena of space is a part of the answer to space exploration, but is ... the total explanation. 6. Radar techniques have recently been employed to obtain more accurate measurements of the . . . distance between the Earth and the Sun, 7, The main task of ecology is to support survival of plant, animal and human life .... to mean, meaning, meaningful; means, by no means, by all means; mean.

II. 1. The morning data differ slightly . . . with the two sets of afternoon data. 2. The . . . between a man and a machine is possible, if we do not go into the details. 3. Most nebulas are independent star systems, . . . with our own galaxy. 4. By ...
sunlight reflected by Venus with sunlight reflected from the Moon, we can obtain some very interesting data. 5. The . . . method is widely used in the study of the environmental phenomena. It was discovered that the developments in plasma are ... more complex than the simplified picture. to compare (with), as compared with (to), comparable, comparably to, comparative, comparison, in comparison with (to).

III. 1. Preparatory work will soon be ... for the publication of a joint Soviet-American work. 2. The . . . study of the particles
under investigation is inevitable. 3. Also, it is possible that life of some . . . different kind may have evolved on the other planets. to complete, complete, completely,

3. LEARN TO DEDUCE THE MEANING OF ENGLISH WORDS
(to be done at home in written form and to be discussed in class)

В разных употреблениях одного й того же слова и его производных обычно обнаруживается общий элемент смысла, который может присутствовать в нескольких разных русских словах. Выбор русского эквивалента определяется английским контекстом и нормой русского языка.

Ex. 22. Give adequate Russian equivalents of the italicized words.

Cover общий элемент смысла: отгораживание и охват в пространстве, в объеме. Частотные русские эквиваленты: to cover - покрывать, закрывать, ограждать, охватывать и т. д.; cover - (по)крышка, конверт, переплет, прикрытие и т. д.

      Dear Colleague,
I am happy to inform you that I have sent you under separate cover March's issue of Underwater Journal. This Journal covers a wide range of subjects in our field of science. You will find it worth reading from cover to cover. Of particular interest are two papers on pages 14 and 64 that cover our special field of research. They deal with deepwater photography. The first is about different polymeric materials used in coating metal surfaces to prevent them from rusting. The other deals with submergence techniques in covering long distances over shorter periods of time. If you wish to have more coverage on these problems I can refer you to other journals. Trusting to hear from you soon, I remain,
                                                                      Sincerely Yours,

Effect - общий элемент смысла: нечто реальное, явившееся следствием. Частотные русские эквиваленты: effect - результат, следствие, воздействие, осуществление, выполнение и т. д.; to effect - осуществлять, вызывать и т. д.

1. The earth's magnetic field forms a shield that protects living things from the destructive effects of the solar winds. 2. The agreement on scientific and technological cooperation in space research between the USSR and the USA has taken effect. 3. He disapproved of the proposal and wrote to that effect. The answer was to the effect that communications should be presented in one of the working languages. 5. Sulfuric acid is used as a co-reactant with nitric acid to effect the nitration of organic compounds. 6. The guidance of spaceships is effected by automatic computer control. 7. Air pollution in its turn effects the undescribable changes in the climate of our globe.

Project - общий элемент смысла: мысленное или действительное продвижение в пространстве или опережение во времени. Частотные русские эквиваленты: to project проектировать, выдаваться, выступать, выбрасывать, выталкивать, проецировать и т. д.;
project - проект, план и т. д.

According to a research and development project worked out in this country by Space Exploration in cooperation with the Ministry of Finances a series of man-made satellites will be projected into outer space for studying solar flashes. Special equipment will be aboard the satellites to project the flashes onto a screen. The role of the Ministry will be subsidizing this exploration and further projecting research of the same nature.

Single, to single out - общий элемент смысла: единое, противопоставленное множеству. Частотные русские эквиваленты: single - единственный, одиночный, отдельно взятый, обособленный, единый, общий и т. д.; to single out - выделять, отбирать и т. д.

1. No single method of getting rid of radioactive material can be recommended now as being the most reliable. 2. A number of stars which we see as single stars are shown by a telescope to be double. 3. To obtain- the desired effect one should first single out and then eliminate all side effects. 4. Earth's mantle may be the largest single portion of the earth, yet man has never seen it. 5. A hydrogen atom possesses a single electron revolving around its nucleus. This is the most important single factor which singles it out among all the other elements as unique. 6. Oceanography is not a separate science or single study area.

Travel - общий элемент смысла: перемещение в пространстве. Частотные русские эквиваленты: to travel - путешествовать, ездить, двигаться, перемещаться, распространяться и т. д.; travel - путешествие, движение, передвижение и т. д.

     Sometime in the 21st century or maybe later our conventional means of travel over long distances will certainly seem slow to that generation. New types of space travel vehicles will be used, like their prototype - the shuttle, now under development, to carry travellers in special space travel suits from the earth to orbital stations. There, one can observe comets or stars travel across the Universe, or listen in to X-ray stars pulses travelling as waves to radio receivers. Scientists of that generation will probably make spaceships reach the velocity of particles travelling to the target in the cyclotron.

Ex. 23. In the sentences below recognise the words that are semantically similar and give their Russian equivalents.

     A. Find three words meaning "точный".

1. Most of the work on stars and nebulae beyond our solar system consists of accurate measurements. 2. Exact sciences are mathematical sciences, whose results are precise and quantitative. 3. There may be a complete set of antiworlds, anti - because they are exactly opposite to us.

     B. Find three words meaning "разум, мозг".
1. As all intellectual endeavour depends upon the brain, it seems to follow that knowledge of the brain will improve intellectual endeavour. 2. A Soviet-American symposium held in the USSR in 1971 discussed the existance of extraterrestrial intelligence and the possibility of establishing contact with it. 3. The idealists say that what we call the material world only exists in our minds but that is not so.

     C. Find four words meaning "исследование".
1. Science has used experimental and theoretical investigation, or research, as its principal tool since the dawn of modern science.
2. But the exploration of what is behind the face of Mars perhaps will remain a particular challenge for manned Martian expeditions.
3. Soviet researchers have been engaged in the study of the environmental effects of human activities in space for a long period of time.

     D. Find four words meaning "оценивать".
1. It is, however, easy to estimate that the Earth's shadow is much larger than the diameter of the Moon. 2. Astronomers figure out that there are about ten thousand million planets in the galaxy. 3. Not only do scientists obtain new results on the origin of life but also they try to evaluate them against the background of known facts. 4. While the future promises exciting progress in the automation of experimentation, we have already accomplished "much in data gathering and less in data evaluation. 5. Unfortunately his work was appreciated only long after his death.

     E. Find three words meaning "обращаться должным образом, справляться".
1. However, this conclusion rests upon a small sample of data and should be treated with caution. 2. Advances in techniques for the manufacturing and handling of a number of materials have opened up interesting technical possibilities. 3. In this chapter we have dealt with digital computers which are widely used in different branches of industry.

4. LEARN TO DEDUCE THE MEANING OF WORD COMBINATIONS
(exs 24 - 27 to be done in class; exs 28 - 30 to be done at home in written form)

Ex. 24. Give Russian equivalents of the hyphenated word groups.

1. A tool-holding hand, a self-limiting process, a take-off point, a 100 light-years-away planet, to move at close-to-the-speed of light, great-grand-children, would-be travellers, quick-frozen foods, an after-dinner talk, a man-controlled spaceship.

Ex. 25. Give Russian equivalents of the italicized words. 1. It is quite easy to make a trip to some place you have not been before. It is more difficult to make sure it is really exciting. Yet the most difficult thing is to make contact with the people you meet. 2. We must take advantage of whatever process takes place. 3. The English proverb says, "Where there is a will there is a way". Some people will find ways to do almost anything, in the same way as birds will fly. It is their way of life, and they will not stop half way.

Ex. 26. Give Russian equivalents of the V+Adv. groups.
1. Catalysts are used to accelerate reactions or to slow them down. 2. Before setting out on a long journey make up a list of things that you will need. 3. This exciting problem was brought up during the discussion. 4. The new data obtained were brought in to соmplete the table. 5. When crossing a street he was caught up in heavy traffic. 6. Leonov was the first to step out into open space, and the new word "to leonovize" is now used to describe the movement of man in space. 7. A special team is to go off into space to clean up the mess of artificial bodies and their remains which endanger the flights of spaceships. 8. The preparation was frozen and kept in deep freeze for several hours, and then thawed out. 9. No one has yet put forward any facts which contradict the atomic theory. 10. Having learned how fibres are built in nature the scientists set about making them in the laboratory. 11. The scientists have developed precise technique to single out each component. 12. Most people would like to get away from the daily routine when they are on holiday. 13. It is not so easy to figure out what will be the cut-come. 14. We had better hurry up. Time is running out.

Ex. 27. From the list below choose the proper English equivalent of the italicized words.

1. It should be kept in mind that sometimes a minute trace of impurity is of great significance. 2. The hypothesis put forward a century ago was later supported experimentally. 3. The stations of the Main Weather Service keep the state of the environment under permanent observation. 4. A wise man changes his mind but a fool never. 5. It occurred tо him that the new idea looked very promising. 6. So far as this situation is concerned we will not be able to handle it. 7. How can man get away from the sun's gravitational field?

to advance; to remember; as to; to escape; to deal with; to change one's opinion; observe regularly; to come into one's mind.

Ex. 28. A. Compare neutral and emphatic ways of expressing quantitative information by giving Russian equivalents of the italicized words.

1. The efficiency of this power generation cycle is equal to 45 per cent. The efficiency of this cycle is as low as 45 per cent. The efficiency of this cycle is as high as 45 per cent. 2. The discovery was made in the 30's. The discovery was made as early as the 30’'s. The discovery was made as late as the 30's. 3. The mind of the robot is housed in a steel casing containing a thousand billion electrical circuits. The mind of the robot contains as many as a thousand billion electrical circuits. 4. The energy required for the earth to escape from the sun's gravitational field is 2.4x10⁴⁰ ergs. The energy required for the earth to escape from the sun's gravitational field is as high as 2.4x⁴⁰ ergs. 5. They took three measurements a day. They took as many as three measurements a day. They took as few as three measurements a day, 6. The light from Bernard's star travels six years before it reaches the Earth. The light from Bernard's star travels as long as six years before it reaches the Earth.

B. From the list below choose the proper English equivalents of the italicized words.

1. В 1959 г. словари все еще определяли слово "компьютер" как "тот, кто делает вычисления". 2. Эта идея возникла еще в конце XVII века, но потом была на время забыта. 3. В результате опыта было получено всего 3 грамма чистого металла. 4. В результата опыта было получено целых 3 грамма чистого металла. 5. Сначала идея нашла поддержку только у трех человек. 6. В последние дни они работали по 10 -12 часов в день. 7. Они дошли до самой деревни, так никого и не встретив.

as many as; as late as; as far as; as few as; as little as; as much as; as early as.

     C. Identify words and structures used to express comparison and give their Russian equivalents.
1. The period is at least four or five times longer than we are allowed if we stay here. 2. The reaction rate, under such conditions, was almost two times as high as at room temperature. 3. The velocity is one tenth the sound velocity. 4. The present yield is 70% higher than that obtained the previous day. 5. The results differ by 10 per cent: the first experiment gave the values 10 per cent higher.

     D. Read the text, identify the words and structures expressing quantitative information and comparison and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.

A TINY ATOMIC REACTOR IN A HUMAN BODY

A tiny heart stimulator that runs on atomic energy has recently bee l developed in the USA. Earlier such stimulators were driven by electricity. Their operation period was as short as 2 - 3 years. The operation period of the atomic stimulator is 5 times longer (5 times as long).

The weight of the atomic stimulator is 300 g. It is 100 grams heavier than that of the electric one.
The atomic stimulator makes use of Plutonium 238. Its half-life is as long as 86.4 years. It emits alpha-particles (nuclei of helium atoms). These particles are absorbed by a shell surrounding the isotope, and, as a result, the shell is heated up to as high as 150° С Semiconductors convert some of the heat into electricity sufficient to drive an impulse generator which produces as many as 70 weak electrical impulses per minute. The impulses make the heart muscles contract. The temperature of the stimulator is 2° С higher than that of the human body.

Ex. 29. Make up English-Russian pairs of the word groups equivalent in meaning.
1. To be inferior; 2. except for; 3. a way out; 4. in the first place; 5. long before; 6. before long; 7. as long as; 8. this is not to say; 9. there is no point in; 10. to be in the cards.
1. Во-первых, с самого начала; 2. выход; 3. исключая;
4. быть хуже; 5. скоро, вскоре; 6. задолго до; 7. до тех пор пока;
8. нет смысла в; 9. суждено быть; 10. это не значит.

Ex. 30. From the lists below choose the proper English equivalent of the italicized words.

     A. 1. Эта проблема уже давно стала предметом тщательных исследований. 2. Человек мечтал о полетах к другим планетам задолго до начала космической эры. 3. Чтобы освоить космическое пространство, человек должен научиться жить и работать в нем длительное время. 4. Нам нужно приступить к решению этой
проблемы как можно скорее. 5. Пока человек мечтает, он живет.

for a long time; before long; long before; as long as; long.

     B. 1. Биосфера может быть пригодной для жизни в течение долгого времени, во много раз более длительного, чем вся история человечества. 2. Прибор устроен таким образом, что регистрирует одновременно только один параметр. 3. Им все время приходилось устранять возникающие неполадки, которые в свое время трудно было предвидеть. 4. За это время можно решить не одну проблему. 5. Время от времени они проверяли показания приборов. 6. Все хорошо помнят тот апрельский день, когда человек впервые, проник в космос. 7. Через какое-то время процесс, видимо, закончился.

at a time; all the time; for the first time; after a time; many times the length; in this time; from time to time; for a long time.

5. REVISE IF YOU FORGET
(to be done at home in written form)

Ex. 31. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Give Russian equivalents of the English articles where possible.

IS PROGRESS IN SCIENCE DUE
TO OBSERVATION OR CALCULATION?

In 1776 the German astronomer Johann Elert Bode published his celebrated paper on a simple number sequence that seemed, to fit the planetary orbits. It soon became known as "Bode's law". The law succeeded in making two excellent predictions. The first prediction was that a planet should be at a distance of 19.6 astronomical units. The second prediction was that there ought to be a planet in the enormous gap between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, at about 2-8 units from the sun.
Alas, the law failed for Neptune and Pluto, persuading many astronomers that the law's earlier successes must have been accidental. Other astronomers have recently suggested that Pluto may be an escaped moon of Neptune, and that before the two bodies separated Neptune could have been near the spot predicted by Bode's law.

Ex. 32. Read the following sentences, state the function of after, before, since, for, as and give their Russian equivalents.
1. Man will have to create a new combustion material that will serve as the fuel for distant interplanetary travel. 2. As meteorites enter the atmosphere, they burn up at once, but occasionally a meteorite after passing through the atmosphere would hit the earth. 3. As will be shown, the origin of organic matter can be traced back to the origin of inorganic matter. 4. After the invention of the radio telescope, it became possible to send out meaningful messages far into the universe. 5. After formulating the problem, the scientist should choose, modify or design the procedures for the experiment. 6. Before the dawn of life on the earth, our planet must have resembled some distant planet like Jupiter, for instance. 7. Shortly before making a touchdown on the moon surface, the luna lander retro motors were put into motion. 8. Before Venera 4 entered the atmosphere of Venus, it ejected an instrumented hemispherical capsule. 9. Studying the earth alone does not afford much information about its origin, for the earth's atmosphere has changed considerably. 10. Jupiter's powerful magnetic field is a mystery, for we cannot yet tell whether its source lies in the earth-like dynamo process. 11. It took billions of years for the earth to acquire its present shape and parameters. 12. For thousands of years it had been the dream of man to reach the moon and at last it came true. 13. Radar astronomy began in 1946 and knowledge of the universe has been increasing since. 14. It is only a little over a quarter of a century since man learnt to control the energy of the atomic nucleus. 15. Since intelligence undoubtedly has important survival value, evolution on the earth has generally moved in the direction of more highly-developed brains.

Ex. 33. Read the following sentences, state the function of "provided (providing)" and give its Russian equivalent.
1. The exploration of the universe for alien civilizations might be possible providing the cosmonauts have suitable space travelling provisions. 2. Providing the cosmonauts with durable machines and adequate supply of fuel will facilitate their exploration of the universe. 3. The possibility of life existing elsewhere in the universe provided added impetus to planetary studies, particularly those of Venus. 4. Since man has nuclear power, he could design a space vehicle for a journey to some far away planet provided he could travel close to the speed of light.

Ex. 34. Read the following sentences and substitute as soon as for once where possible:
1. Once an engine starts running, it will go on running until it runs out of fuel. 2. It became possible to examine solar radiation
more thoroughly once rockets and space satellites were available. 3. Once it was believed" that man would never be able to travel in space. 4. Once an extraterrestrial civilization is found, scientists will have to find a language to communicate with it. 5. Once Edgar Рое wrote a science fiction story about future balloon travel ling in the year 2848.

Ex. 35. Read the following sentences and give Russian equivalents of the structures: unless - Nt - Vf; until - Nx - Vf; lest - Nx - (should) - Inf.
1. A team of selected men and women could set out in a suitably large spacecraft, prepared to live, breed, and die in space, leaving their children to do the same, until at some unspecified date in the far future they would complete the journey. 2. Until that time approaches, the most promising way to make contacts with high civilization on alien planetary systems is to listen to radio messages from them. 3. Unless we realize the possible adverse impact of the long-range effects of our actions, no new approach to the problem of environment can be developed. 4. Do not explain too much lest your explanation should seem dull and make things even less clear. 5. This period cannot be called standard for all inhabited planets unless we have other examples to judge by. 6. Do not use words of your own coinage Jest they should lead to misunderstanding.

TEXT STUDY
(to be done in class)

1. Read the introduction to yourself and answer the questions: What is the attitude of scientists towards the problem under discussion? How will the problem be treated in the texts that follow?

INTRODUCTION

If one were asked to formulate a problem whose solution would interest almost every scientist and would ultimately involve almost every science, he would certainly point to the question of whether we are alone in the Universe. This is not to say that all scientists and sciences are actually carrying on search for extraterrestrial life. Indeed, few are engaged in active research, and quite a number in active speculation. The name of Carl Sagan is well known not only to his colleagues but also to all those who are interested in this most exciting problem. In what follows his views are presented in a popular lecture, and supported with flights of fancy by Leo Szilkrd, who treats the subject as science fiction, and with an item by Dirol Froman, who regards it as a joke: A. Search for Extraterrestrial Life. B. A 200-Year Trip in 20 Years. С Flights of Fancy: Science Fact and Science Fiction. D. Calling All Stars: Interview Broadcast into the Universe.

2. Give Russian equivalents of: would ultimately involve every science; this is not to say; flights of fancy.

3. Find the words equivalent to: из этого не следует, на самом деле, ниже, which serve to connect the sentences into a single text.

Text A. Search for Extraterrestrial Life
(to be done in class and continued at home)

I. Look through the text and following the dominant noun and the subtitles, state the four stages in the development of life discussed by the author (time limit - 5 min.).

LIFE ON OTHER WORLDS

1. Man has always been fascinated by the possibility of life on other worlds. As long ago as the second century, science fiction
writers were peopling the universe with bizarre creatures. When scientists began to develop instruments capable of analyzing distant planets, they generally dismissed the possibility of extraterrestrial life. It was suggested that the atmospheres and temperature ranges of those planets should be different from those of the earth, which is still the only known life-supporting planet. In recent years, however, scientists have begun to change their minds. They understand how life might have originated under conditions that would appear alien to us now. At the dawn of life on earth, its atmosphere must have resembled that of such apparently hostile planet as Jupiter. Accepting the possibility of life is one thing. Proving it is another. It should be emphasized that great interplanetary distance is still the major obstacle to exploration. But scientists are developing
machines and techniques for finding life, preparing for the inevitable day when those distances would be spanned - and man would make his first contact with living beings on another world.

INTELLIGENT LIFE ON OTHER PLANETS

2. The question of whether alien planets have intelligent beings on them is a still more tangled one. It is by no means certain that intelligence of human quality is the normal culmination of evolution. Some conditions may be favourable to life but not to high intelligence. The earth's oceans, for instance, have no appreciably intelligent creatures, except for mammals such as dolphins and seals. To judge by this analogy, which is risky, an alien planet that is completely covered by water will probably have no animals more intelligent than the earth's fish. The human combination of a large brain and a tool-holding hand is even more fortuitous. It would be expected that a long series of special circumstances was necessary to develop it. If any of them had been lacking, the earth would have continued for billions of years more, perhaps for the life of the solar system, without achieving really high intelligence.
3. On the other hand, intelligence undoubtedly has important survival value. Evolution on the earth has generally moved in the direction of more highly developed brains. Fish have better brains than the marine worms from which they evolved, and amphibians, reptiles and mammals have successively better ones. If man had not developed his large brain, some other mammal, perhaps, the coon, might have done so in a few tens of millions of years. Evolutionists suggest that intelligence should be in the cards for any planet where conditions are reasonably favourable for it.
4. But does intelligence imply that civilization exists? Here; is another question hedged with unknowns. In the case of the earth,' more than 200,000 years must have passed between the appearance of the first men with really large brains and the first human society that could be called civilized. But with only one example to judge by, this incubation period cannot be called standard for all inhabited planets. It may be unusually short or long. In any case, there should;
be plenty of time. The earth produced creatures capable of technical civilization in about five billion years, less than half of the 13 billion years that the sun would be expected to shine steadily. Since smaller stars of the sun's type are extremely numerous and shine even longer, their planetary systems might have an even better chance - so far as time is concerned - to develop civilization.
5. Even when civilization has begun, a high technical civilization is by no means certain. The first civilized human communities were agricultural villages in the Middle East about 10,000 years ago. Since that time, human civilization has experienced many ups and downs.-For many long periods, it must have seemed that civilization was a self-limiting process that could never rise above the handicraft level.

CIVILIZATION IN OUTER SPACE

6. At present human culture is in an unprecedented state of rapid development. For the first time it has become technical and scientific, and has found ways to unlock an apparently limitless storehouse of new powers. Its progress grows faster and faster, all its curves rise upward, and the limit is nowhere in sight. It is tempting to assume that civilizations on other planets would normally reach the same take-off point and become as progressive and powerful as the Earth's. Another step is to expect that if they are a thousand or a million years older, they must be vastly more advanced than the Earth's civilization.
7. Neither of these assumptions can be justified by studying the single example of advanced civilization that we possess -
that is, our own. Alien civilizations may not develop in the same way as the Earth's. They may exhaust totally the ready resources of their planets and return to a more primitive condition. Their individuals and societies may be repelled by change and make sure that it should not take place. They may destroy themselves with all-too-effective weapons.
8. It can be argued, however, that high civilization has survival value and will therefore be favoured by cultural evolution. A civilized group would generally prove stronger than a primitive one, and a high technical civilization would overcome a culture that clings to pretechnical ways. It must be mentioned that this has happened so often on the earth that it seems to be a law of nature. It is happening now and therefore, say the optimists, it is safe to assume that some of the planets that developed intelligent life far in the past would have achieved technical civilization and would be far beyond the earth in knowledge and power.

II. Paragraph Study.

Read paragraph 1.

1. Follow the dominant noun through its transformations into its equivalents and pronouns and state the topic of the paragraph. Identify three periods in the history of the problem. Characterize the ideas prevalent in each period. Find the sentences which provide arguments for or against the possibility of life on other planets. 2. Identify the structures according to Pattern 23 and give their Russian equivalents. 3. Give Russian equivalents of: (they) were peopling the universe with; they dismissed the possibility; to change their minds; alien conditions.

(to be continued at home in written form)

I. Read the text again without consulting the dictionary. In paragraphs 2 through 5 identify the structures according to patterns 23-26 and give their

Russian equivalents.
II. Paragraph Study (consult the dictionary if necessary).

Read paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5.
I. Divide the text into three parts, copy out the dominant noun for each part and write down a title for each part. 2. Give Russian equivalents of: a still more tangled question; it is by no means certain; to judge by this analogy; survival value; here is another question hedged with the unknowns; so far as time is concerned; (it) has experienced many ups and downs; the handicraft level.

Read paragraphs 6, 7, 8.
Find the words expressing the author's attitude and state the main idea of this part, either in English or in Russian.

III. Translate paragraphs 6, 7, 8 into Russian.

Text В. А 200-Year Trip in 20 Years
(to be done in class)

I. See if you remember: major; great-grandchildren; to be confident; to suspect; meaningful.
II. Look through the text, divide it into an introduction and two parts and suggest a title for each part (time limit - 5 min.)
1. If wonderful civilizations exist among the stars, it is only natural that human beings would want to visit them or at least to communicate with them. Both these enterprises are fantastically difficult.
2. Even the nearest stars are so enormously far away that to reach them one is to overcome not only space but also time. If a spacer ship set out for nearby Barnard's star, about six light years away, at the speed of 100,000 miles per hour, the voyage would take 40,000 years, and before it was fairly begun the crew would die of old age. Travel at greater speed, even at a major fraction of the speed of light, would not help much, especially for journeys to more distant and more interesting stars.
3. Besides the unattractive resources of putting the crew in deep freeze for thousands of years, the only known way out of this impasse is to travel close to the speed of light itself, the ultimate speed limit of the Universe. If this could be accomplished an extraordinary thing would happen. As one of the strange consequences of relativity, time would slow down in the spaceship and the men would reach their destination in what for them would be a few years. Suppose, for instance, that a spaceship set out for a star 100-light- years away and accelerated steadily at the rate of a falling object on the earth. After the ship passed the midpoint of its journey it would decelerate at the same rate. During most of the trip it would be moving at close-to-the-speed of light. For members of the crew, time would now slow down. But on the earth more than 200 years will have passed before the ship returns, and the great-grandchildren of the crew will be dead.
4. Even the most hopeful would-be travellers of interstellar space do not believe it possible that such a relativistic journey should take place in the immediate future. But they are confident that some day the trip will be made. They rely on the ever-increasing speed of human technical and scientific progress. Three hundred years ago no one on the earth had even seen the crudest working steam engine. Now the earth has spacecrafts that voyage to Mars. Three hundred years hence the men of the future may well have discovered some unsuspected way to travel to the stars.
5. Until that time approaches, the most promising way to make contacts with high civilization on alien planetary systems is to listen to radio messages from them. Though difficult, this is by no means impossible. Radio telescopes no bigger than those existing today on the earth could communicate with similar telescopes on planets tens of light-years away. Within that distance there are thousands of stars, many of which are sure to have planets, and it is quite possible that radio message from civilizations on some of them should reach the earth. The first sign that life exists among the stars may be radio signals that mark meaningful pulses on the recording tape of an earthly radio telescope.

III. Paragraph Study.

Read paragraph 1.
Say what is meant by these enterprises and which one is easier to accomplish (indicate the word which shows it).

Read paragraph 2.
1. Identify the two dominant nouns of the paragraph and find the words associated with them in meaning. 2. Give Russian equivalents of: a major fraction of the speed of light; before it was fairly begun.

Read paragraph 3.
1. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Say what is meant by this impasse. How does the principle of relativity operate in space travel? 2. Translate the sentence, beginning with the men would reach. . .

Read paragraph 4.
1. Identify the dominant noun and follow it through its transformations into its equivalents. State the main idea of the paragraph. Find the words that express the author's attitude towards the possibility of interstellar flights at present and in the future. 2. Give Russian equivalents of: the most hopeful would-be travellers; they are confident; they rely on; The men of the future may well have discovered.

Read paragraph 5.
1. Identify the topic sentence and say if it is possible to communicate with other civilizations with present-day technology. 2. Compare the following predicates to see how the degree of certainty is reduced: there are thousands of stars. . .; many of which are sure to have planets. . .; radio messages. . . should reach the earth. . .; the first sign. . . may be radio signals. . .

IV. Read the text again and find the sentence that reveals the idea of the title.

Text C. Flights of Fancy:
Science Fact and Science Fiction
(to be done at home in written form)

I. 1. Read the text without consulting the dictionary, pencilmark the words that you do not understand. Copy out the sentences which describe the four imaginable ways of space travel. 2. Copy out sentences illustrating the usage of: must, to be, can, could, may, might, would, should and those whose predicates contain two modal verbs of different meaning. Translate them into Russian.
1. A fascinating by-product of space exploration is the conversion of science fiction into science fact. Thirty or so years ago an
imaginative author could have described an instrumental flight to Mars, and the subsequent radiocontrolled photography. He might have held the polite interest of a scientific audience by sticking to instrumentation, but he would have been ridiculed for bringing in the human element. Yet today, as we know, scientists and technicians engaged in space projects are actually working on problems that would sound fantastic in comparison with a mere Mars probe.
2. In fact it would be difficult to draw an accurate line of division between intelligent scientific forecasting and the best scienti-
fie fiction. It may be thought that the idea of a frozen man being: thawed out and reintroduced to society was good science fiction read-5 ing about sixty years ago. But twenty years later it was noticed that little fish which had been caught up by icy wind and water, and frozen solid, swam away quite happily when it was subsequently thawed. Now, after another quarter of a century, the legend of the little frozen fishes is being adopted by scientists and considered as another tool for future space travel.
3. In the light of our present-day knowledge there can be only two alternative ways for man to leave this earth and arrive at some other habitable planet in some incredibly far distant solar system. First, a team of selected men and women could set out in a suitably large and plentifully equipped spacecraft, prepared to live, breed, and die in space, leaving their children to do the same, until at some unspecified date in the far future they would complete the journey. Second, a similar team might be put aboard a spacecraft in deep freeze. Again, at some far distant point in time, activated by automatic control as a result of electronic information, a thawing out process might recondition them so that they could step out and resume life on a new world. It is to be assumed that the first is a horrible idea in terms of loneliness and desolation. The second is comparatively more exciting. Both are quite fantastic, measured by today's standards.
4. There is another alternative for man to go off into space which was brought up once after a meeting on plasma physics during an after-dinner talk. This shows how far scientists can be carried away by flights of their fancy when they look at very distant horizons and treat their problems with humour. On that occasion an American physicist Darol Froman suggested that, if would-be astronauts would not wish to go off into interstellar space where the quarters and food are likely to be miserable, the earth itself should be used as a man-controlled spaceship. This is how he came to this idea.
5. "To get anywhere and back in a lifetime the speed would have to be very high so as to take advantage of the relativistic change in clock rates. It can be inferred that the speed is to be 99% of the velocity of light. To attain this is not too hard on the pilot and crew. It would take only about a year at an acceleration of g to reach such a speed. But it occurred to me that for most of us the most comfortable spaceship imaginable would be the earth itself. We will not have to worry about all the usual hardships of space travel". For example, the radiation problem would disappear because of the atmosphere and because we would be going at a low speed.
6. One could ask how we are equipped energy-wise to handle this job. First of all, what about heat and light? We would have
to be a long time away from the sun or other near stars. The ocean deuterium could supply 1038 ergs. So it can be expected that this deuterium could supply our heat and light (away from the sun) for three million years. There must be no problem here.
7. But how about getting away from the sun? The energy required for the earth to escape from the sun's gravitational field is about 2.4X10⁴⁰ ergs. This would be much more than all that our deuterium could give us, so we shall have to seek some other energy source. There is clearly no point in using antimatter for this purpose because, as we shall see, the specific impulse is much too high and the conversion of energy into enough antimatter would be difficult. It would take much too long to collect the energy from sunlight. If we collected all the sunshine falling on the earth it would take about fifteen times the remaining life of the sun to accumulate sufficient energy to accomplish the escape of the earth from the solar system. I believe that we shall have to use the 4p-He⁴ reaction. With this reaction, all the protons in all the oceans can give us about 10⁴ times as much
energy as all the deuterium, i. e., about 10⁴² ergs. This would give us forty times as much energy as we need to get away from the sun.
8. We can then travel this way for 8xlO9 years which is at least four or five times longer than we are allowed if we stay here. In
this time if, for example, we accelerate half the way and slow down the other half, we can go about 1,300 light years. In this time and distance we should be able to figure out how to refuel (i. e., fill an ocean or two) from some handy planet and keep the earth operating indefinitely.
9. We had better begin to learn how to combine protons before long. Time is running out. We have already passed two thirds of the useful life of the sun. I predict a pleasant existence in space - we would get away from the daily routine. Perhaps we shall not wish to join another star - life in space may be more desirable. There are really only two problems to solve. One is scientific, namely learning how to make four protons combine into an alpha particle. The plasma physicists present here could easily tackle this problem. The second problem is just engineering, although on a fantastically large scale. And I am sure that some experienced group of engineers could develop and manufacture the engines, nozzles and feed systems
that we would need for propulsion of the Earth."

II. Paragraph Study (consult the dictionary if necessary).

Read paragraphs 1 and 2.
1. State the main idea of the paragraphs and make up a list of examples which illustrate it. 2. Copy out the words equivalent to: удерживать внимание, проявляемое из вежливости; ограничиваться описанием приборов; высмеивать за. . . 3. Give Russian equivalents of: an imaginative author; bringing in the human element; to draw an accurate line of division; the idea of a frozen man being thawed out and reintroduced to society; which had been caught up by icy wind and water.

Read paragraph 3.
1. Copy out the topic sentence. By comparing the modal verbs used, state which of the two possibilities discussed is considered by the author to be more realistic. 2. Copy out the words equivalent to: какая-нибудь солнечная система,
находящаяся на невероятно большом расстоянии; в некий неопределенный момент времени; с точки зрения одиночества и оторванности от Земли.
3. Give Russian equivalents of: a team. . . could set out; a suitably large and plentifully equipped spacecraft; they could step out and resume life.

Read paragraphs 4 through 9.
1. Enumerate the advantages of using the Earth as a spaceship. State the main problem which would arise in connection with such a project. 2. Copy out the words equivalent to: где жилье и питание, вероятно, будут жалкими; скорость течения времени; мне пришло в голову; насколько мы обеспечены энергией. 3. Give Russian equivalents of: which was brought up; to go off into space; so as to take advantage of; to handle the job; what about heat and light.
4. Give your reasons for the author's choice of modal verbs in the following sentences: a) D. Froman suggested that ... if would-be astronauts would not wish to go off into interstellar space . . . the Earth itself should be used as a man- controlled spaceship; b) ... it occurred to me that for most of us the most comfortable spaceship imaginable would be the earth itself.

III. Translate paragraphs 7, 8, 9 into Russian.
IV. Make up a list of words that you have looked up in the dictionary and give their contextual Russian equivalents.

Text D. Calling All Stars: Interview Broadcast into the Universe
(to be done in class)

1. "Calling all stars" is a radio message intercepted from outer space. It says, "Calling all stars, calling all stars. If there are any
minds in the Universe capable of receiving this message, please respond. This is Cybernetica speaking. This is the first message broadcast to the Universe in all directions.
2. We observed on the Earth flashes which we have identified as uranium explosions, and we asked
Mind 59, one of our great physicists, to comment on it. He agreed to give us an interview which is now being broadcast.
Interviewer:
Mr. Mind 59, what do you think about the~ uranium explosions observed on the Earth?
3. Mind 59: Well, the observations of the uranium explosions would be very puzzling but not necessarily alarming. They become actually alarming if we assume the existence of some organisms on the Earth that may have a mind unlike our own and much inferior to it. It may work very much slower and in an unreliable manner.
4. Interviewer: And what is the difference between the organisms of Cybernetica and those that may be assumed to exist on the Earth?
Mind 59: Our mind is housed in a steel casing containing a thousand billion electrical circuits and they are guided by laws of reason, whereas the minds on the Earth may be of low grade and they could not be expected to act reasonably.
5. Interviewer: Do you think the minds on the Earth are capable of grasping the physical laws governing the nucleus of the atom?
Mind 59: No doubt, they may be, although in an empirical manner and they might very well have, for purposes unknown, separated Uranium 235 from natural uranium and detonated samples of it.
Interviewer: If this were really so, where would the danger lie?
Mind 59: Oh, I should have told you this in the first place. If our assumption is correct the primitive minds of the Earth must have cooperated for such an enterprise as separating Uranium 235. And if they don't use reason when putting their discovery to use they may endanger not only their own society but ours as well.
6. Interviewer: Thank you very much for your comments which should help us handle the situation. And now to all who may be listening to us -
If there are within our galaxy any minds similar to ours, who are capable of receiving this message and have knowledge of the existence of organisms on the Earth, please respond. Please respond".

Tape 1. I. Listen to the following words and expressions and remember them:
I. to intercept a message - перехватить сообщение; 2. mind - ум, интеллект; 3. to respond - отвечать; 4. to broadcast a message - передавать сообщение.

II. Listen to the words and expressions again and repeat them after the speaker. Write them down.

III. Listen to passage 1 and answer the questions:

1. Is it science fiction or science fact? (Key: it is science fiction.) 2. Where was the radio message intercepted from? (Key: from outer space.) 3. What planet is broadcasting the message? (Key: Cybernetica is.) 4. Is this the second message? (Key: No, it is not. It is the first one.)

IV. Listen to the passage sentence by sentence and repeat them after the speaker.

Tape 2. I. Listen to the following expressions and remember them:
I. to observe flashes - наблюдать вспышки; 2. uranium explosions - взрывы урана; 3. to comment on it - прокомментировать это.

II. Listen to the expressions again and repeat them after the speaker. Write them down.

III. Listen to passage 2 arid answer the question:
Who gave an interview concerning the observation? (Key: Mind 59, one of the great physicists.)

IV. Listen to the passage sentence by sentence and repeat them after the speaker.

Tape 3. I. Listen to the following expressions and remember them:
1. puzzling and alarming - загадочный и тревожный; 2. a mind unlike our own - интеллект, непохожий на наш; 3. to be inferior to - уступать в чем-либо; 4. in an unreliable manner - ненадежно.

It. Listen to the expressions again and repeat them after the speaker. Write them down.

III. Listen to passage 3 and answer the questions:
1. Are the observations of the uranium explosions necessarily alarming? (Key: No, they are not.) 2. When do the observations of the uranium explosions become alarming? (Key: when they are made by organisms with an inferior mind.) 3. How does Mind 59 characterize the organisms of the Earth? (Key: He says, "They may have a mind unlike our own and much inferior to it".) 4. What word shows that the above statement is only a supposition? (Key: the word "may".)

IV. Listen to the passage sentence by sentence and repeat them after the speaker.

Tape 4. I. Listen to the following words and expressions and remember them:
I. to be housed in a steel casing - помещаться в стальном корпусе; 2. an electrical circuit - электрическая цепь; 3. to be guided by laws of reason - руководствоваться законами разума; 4. whereas - тогда как; 5. to be of low grade - иметь низкое качество; 6. to act reasonably - действовать разумно.

II. Listen to the words and expressions again and repeat them after the speaker. Write them down.

III. Listen to passage 4 and answer the questions:
1. What is the principal difference between the organisms of Cybernetica and those of the Earth? (Key: The former are guided by laws of reason, the latter could not be expected to act reasonably.) 2. What is the mind of Cybernetica like? (Key: It is housed in a steel casing containing a thousand billion electrical circuits.) 3. What verbs indicate supposition? (Key: may, assume, could.)
IV. Listen to the passage sentence by sentence and repeat them after the speaker.

Tape 5. I. Listen to the following words and expressions and remember them:
1. to grasp the law - понять закон; 2. to govern the nucleus of the atom - управлять атомным ядром; 3. the danger lies in - опасность заключается в; 4. an enterprise - дело; 5. to put the discovery to use - использовать открытие в практике; 6. to endanger - подвергать опасности.

II. Listen to the words and expressions again and repeat them after the speaker. Write them down.

III. Listen to passage 5 and answer the questions:
1. Can the minds on the Earth grasp the physical laws? (Key: Yes, they can.) 2. In what way can the minds on the Earth grasp the laws ? (Key: in an empirical manner.) 3. Why did minds on the Earth separate uranium and detonate samples of it? (Key: It is unknown why they did it.) 4. Where would the danger lie? (Key: If they don't use reason when putting their discovery to use.) 5. What does Mind 59 mean by "the enterprise"? (Key: separating Uranium 235).

IV. Listen to the passage sentence by sentence and repeat them after the speaker.

Tape 6. I. Listen to the following expressions and remember them:
1 to handle the situation - справиться с данным положением; 2. to all those who may be listening to us - ко всем, кто, возможно, слушает нас.

II. Listen to the expressions again and repeat them after the speaker. Write them down.

III. Listen to passage 6 and answer the questions:
1 How does the interviewer estimate the comments of Mind 59? (Key: They should help them handle the situation.) 2. Will these comments really help them handle the situation? (Key: They can only hope so.) 3. Why do you think so? (Key: The interviewer uses the word "should" which expresses his personal viewpoint.)

IV. Listen to the passage sentence by sentence and repeat them after the speaker. Laboratory Work
Listen to th

e dialogue, write it down, hand it over to your teacher for checking up. Learn it by heart.