GRAMMAR: WORD ORDER IN THE SENTENCE AND ITS MESSAGE. PREDICATE VS. ATTRIBUTE. TOPIC: SCIENCE: GENERAL PROBLEMS.
STRUCTURE STUDY:
1. Passive Structures and Their Message (Patterns 1-2).
2. Ambiguous Ved Forms (Patterns 3 - 5).
3. Ving Forms: Position and Function in the Sentence:
a) Unambiguous Ving Forms (Patterns 6 - 9);
b) Unambiguous Combination of Ving and N (Pattern 10);
c) Ambiguous Combination of Ving and N (Patterns 11-12).
WORD STUDY:
1. English-Russian Word Relation.
2. Word Structure (-er/-or, -ment, -tion, -(u)al, -ent/-ant, -ence/-ance,
N -V).
3. Word Meaning (background, case, facility, imply, involve, matter).
4. Word Combinations.
5. Structure Words (it/they, its/their, this/these, that/those, one/ones/
one's, little/few, a little/a .few, much/many).
TEXT STUDY:
Introduction.
Text A. Science and Technology (for class-room reading and analysis, and
home translation).
Text B. What Science Is (for class-room comprehension reading). Text С
Research: Fundamental and Applied, and the Public (for home practice in
different reading skills).
Text D. Scientific Innovation: Its Impact on Technology (for classroom
practice in understanding spoken English).
STRUCTURE STUDY
1. PASSIVE STRUCTURES AND THEIR MESSAGE
Pattern Study (1)
Pattern 1:
. . .Nf. . .Vfpass (Prep.). . .(by/ with-phr.). . .
The idea was first suggested by Prof. X. Эта мысль была впервые высказана
проф. X.
An idea was suggested to use another method. Была высказана мысль использовать
другой метод.
Pattern Practice (1)
Ex.
1. Identify the passive structures and the logical predicates,
translate the sentences into Russian as shown in the following example.
Example: More evidence was obtained to support the idea.
"Evidence was obtained" is the passive structure, "more evidence.
. . to support the idea" is the logical predicate. Были получены
новые данные в поддержку этой идеи.
The problem was first recognized in the XIX century. Later an idea
was suggested to apply it to practical things. Many possibilities
for practical
applications were analysed. Some of these were tested by experiment.
The experimental results were not generally accepted, and the idea
was discarded.
Then other consequences were deduced and a new model proposed. Recently
the model has been modified and is now being used in many practical
situations.
Ex. 2. A. Practise orally by using impersonal passive
structures as shown in the following example.
Example: We (the author, they, etc.) have found that. . . . It has
been found that. . . .
1. I must admit that. . . . 2. He has found that. ... 3. Everybody
accepts that. ... 4. I believe that .... 5. The author hopes that
... . 6. Scientists
sometimes say that ... . 7. Most people assume that ... . 8. Physicists
recognize nowadays that ....
B. Give English equivalents of the following Russian
phrases using impersonal passive structures and adverbs └widely," └generally" where
required.
1. Говорят, что .... 2. Предполагается, что ... .3. Можно надеяться,
что .... 4. Следует признать, что .... 5. Было найдено, что ....
6. Общепризнанно, что .... 7. Считают, что .... 8. Широко распространено
мнение, что ....
Pattern Vocabulary (1). List 1
Remember
some of the verbs taking a direct object in English but equivalent to
Russian verbs followed by a preposition.
to affect
- влиять (на);
to answer - отвечать (на);
to approach - подойти
(к);
to attend - присутствовать (на) (и активно участвовать);
to consult
- консультироваться (у, с);
to enjoy - получать удовольствие
(от), пользоваться;
to follow - следовать, следить (за);
to influence
- влиять (на); to join - присоединяться (к); to watch - наблюдать
(за).
Ex. 3. Identify passive structures and give
Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence as shown
in the following
example.
Example: Under these conditions the questions cannot be answered
unambiguously. "The question cannot be answered" .... На
вопрос нельзя ответить ....
1. Some people are easily influenced by other people's opinions.
2. The distribution of plants is greatly affected by local conditions.
3. The seminar was attended by all the participants. 4. His
lectures
are always followed by heated discussions. 5. In several areas
of research the efforts of scientists are joined by those of
philosophers
and sociologists. 6. At the university students are offered a
curriculum of study which is followed by a test and the award
of a degree.
7. The members of the laboratory were consulted prior to this
successful operation.
Pattern Vocabulary (1). List 2
Remember some of the verbs followed by a preposition which is
retained in the passive structure.
to account for - объяснять (служить объяснением, учитывать);
to agree upon - договариваться (о);
to call for - требовать, призывать (к);
to deal with - иметь дело (с), рассматривать;
to refer to - ссылаться (на), упоминать, to refer to as -
называть;
to rely on/upon - полагаться (на);
to substitute for - вводить, подставлять (вместо);
to think of - думать](о), to think of as - считать.
Ex. 4. Identify passive structures followed by a preposition
and give Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the
sentence as
shown in the following example.
Example: Such things are
not even thought of before the discovery is actually made.
"Things are not thought of ...".О
(таких) вещах не думают ....
1. This method has been referred to in an earlier paper.
2. I do not think this instrument can be relied upon. 3.
The data
cannot
be
accounted for by the existing theory. 4. This theory has
been referred to as the "big bang" theory. 5. The
best treatment of this syndrome is generally agreed upon.
6. Rapid
development
of chemical technology has been called for by the needs of
the national economy. 7. The prolongation-of life may be
thought
of as a feat of endurance rather than a race against time.
Reading Practice (Pattern 1)
Text 1. 1) Read the text to yourself and be ready for a comprehension check-up.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND METHODS OF SCIENCE
It
is sometimes said that there is no such thing as the so-called "scientific
method"; there are only the methods used in
science. Nevertheless, it seems clear that there
is often a special sequence of procedures which is involved in the establishment
of the working principles of science. This sequence
is as follows:
(1) a problem is recognized, and as much information
as possible is collected; (2) a solution (i. e. a hypothesis) is proposed
and the consequences arising out of this solution
are deduced;
(3) these deductions are tested by experiment, and
as a result the hypothesis is accepted, modified or discarded.
2) Check up for comprehension.
1. Find two sentences which express two different
viewpoints on the existence of "scientific method".
2. What words show that the first sentence is an
opinion? 3. What word shows that
these viewpoints are in opposition? 4. Find the words
equivalent to "scientific method". 5. What procedure
does the scientist follow in his research?
Pattern Study (2a)
Pattern 2a:
. . . N1. . .Vf passf pass • • . N2/Inf.
. . .by/with-phr. . . .
The laboratory was given new equipment. Лаборатории
было выделено новое оборудование.
The scientist was asked to give his point
of view on this hypothesis. Ученого попросили изложить
свою точку
зрения
относительно этой
гипотезы.
Pattern Vocabulary (2a). List 3
Remember some of the verbs that may be followed
by an indirect object which becomes the subject
in the
passive
structure.
| to allow |  |
позволять кому-л. | |
| to ask | спрашивать кого-л. | ||
| to give | давать кому-л. | ||
| to offer | - smb | предлагать кому-л. | |
| to promise | обещать кому-л. | ||
| to recommend | рекомендовать кому-л. | ||
| to teach | учить кого-л. | ||
| to tell | сообщать кому-л. |
Pattern Practice (2a)
Ex.
5. Identify passive structures and give
Russian equivalents of the relevant part
of the sentence
as shown in the
following example.
Example: During the examination the students
are not allowed to consult grammar-
books.
"The students are not allowed
. . ."
Студентам не разрешают (не разрешается)
....
1. Не was not offered any help. 2. We
have been given all the necessary information.
3. The institute
was
promised financial
support. 4. The speaker was asked a lot
of
questions. 5.
The teachers are recommended to give
the passage as a talk. 6.
If the mixture is allowed to stay overnight,
it gradually decomposes. 7. At that time
girls were
taught hardly
more than three R's
(reading, writing and 'rithmetic).
Pattern Study (2b, 2c)
Pattern 2b:
. . .N1.
. .Vf pass ... N2 (Prep.)(by/with-phr.). . .
At present chemical methods of purifying
water are extensively made use of.
В настоящее время
химические
методы очистки
воды широко используются.
Pattern 2c:
. . .N1. . .Vf pass Prep ... N2...
.(by/with-phr.). . .
At present extensive use is made
of chemical methods of purifying
water.
В настоящее
время широко используются
химические
методы очистки воды.
Pattern Vocabulary (2b, 2c). List
4
Remember the following V. . .N-combinations
and their equivalents:
to give consideration to - to
consider - рассматривать;
to make allowance for - to allow
for - учитывать, делать поправку
(на);
to make a contribution to - to
contribute to - вносить вклад
(в);
to make mention of - to mention
- упоминать (о);
to make reference to - to refer
to - ссылаться (на);
to make use of - to use - использовать,
воспользоваться;
to take advantage of - to make
use of - воспользоваться;
to take note of - to take notice
of - to pay attention to - обращать
внимание.
Pattern Practice (2b, 2c)
Ex.
6. Identify passive structures according to Patterns 2b,
2c and give Russian equivalents
of
the relevant
part of the sentence.
1. This atmospheric interference
has often been made reference
to by radio
and TV commentators.
2. Unfortunately
no advantage
was taken of the fast reaction
rate. 3. So far
no notice has been taken
of the obvious advantage of this technique. 4. His curiosity
was excited when reference
was made to still earlier publications. 5. Recently the problem
has been
given close consideration in
connection with a new space;
project. 6.
Mention has already been made of the fact that
gold is slowly, attacked by these
substances. 7. Several outstanding
contributions have been made to the study of crystal
growth. 8. There is
no doubt that in
the course of further scientific
development extensive use will be made of modern computing
machines and
electronic devices.
Reading Practice (Patterns 1, 2)
Text
2. 1) Read the text to yourself and be ready for a comprehension
check up.
Recently much attention has been
given to the study of this
phenomenon. In this paper
new
experimental observations
are
presented and
discussed. The data have
been obtained assuming a new model of the
mechanism involved, which
was
suggested
in an earlier
study
by the author. The measurements
have been carried out
with a conventional apparatus
slightly modified by the author.
All possible
sources of error are
taken into account and consideration is
given to
the advantages and shortcomings
of
the present approach.
The results are analysed
and
the analysis is followed by a comparison
of the data obtained
with those
available in literature.
It is
hoped that the disagreement
may be accounted for by an improved experimental
technique
of the present
investigation.
2) Check up for comprehension.
1. Is it an abstract,
a summary or a conclusion?
2. What
was the author's
theoretical contribution?
3.
Did anybody
else
study the phenomenon?
(Find
two sentences to support
your answer).
4. Do the
author's
results
agree
with those reported
in literature?
5. How does he account
for that? 6. How does
the author
increase
the accuracy
of his results?
2. AMBIGUOUS VED FORMS
Pattern Study (3, 4, 5)
Pattern 3:
. . .N. . .Ved (Prep.).
. .
1) Prof. X proposed
a new working hypothesis.
Профессор X предложил
новую рабочую гипотезу.
2) The hypothesis
proposed (by Prof.
X) accounts
for all
the experimental
observations made.
The hypothesis
which
is (was) proposed
(by Prof. X) accounts
for
all experimental
observations which
were made. Предложенная
(профессором
Х)
гипотеза объясняет
все сделанные экспериментальные
наблюдения.
Pattern 4:
... N.. .Ved' (Prep.).
. .Ved"(Prep.).
. .
1) The hypothesis
proposed agreed
with the experimental
observation. -> The hypothesis
which is (was)
proposed agreed
with the experimental
observation. Предложенная
гипотеза
была в согласии
с экспериментальными
наблюдениями.
2) For some
time scientists
remained
interested in
the problem. В
течение некоторого времени
ученые сохраняли
интерес
к этой проблеме.
Pattern 5:
. . .N'. . .Ved'
(Prep.). . .Ved" (Prep.).
. .N"
1) The institute
installed modernized
equipment.
В институте
установлено модернизированное
оборудование.
2) The equipment
installed modernized
our laboratory
too.
Установленное оборудование
модернизировало
и нашу лабо
раторию.
Pattern Practice (3, 4, 5)
Ex.
7. Identify
the predicate
and give
Russian equivalents
of N.
. .Ved as
shown in the
following example.
Example: Later
on scientists
accepted the
hypothesis
rejected previously
for want
of experimental
evidence. "Accepted"
is the predicate;
scientists
accepted -
ученые приняли;
the hypothesis
rejected -
отвергнутая
гипотеза.
1. The method
applied increased
the accuracy
of the results.
2. After
a heated discussion
the laboratory
applied the
method improved
by Dr. N. 3.
The scientist
theoretically
predicted complicated
interaction
between
the
components
involved in
the process.
4. At that
time
the
problem presented
increased danger
of
radioactive
contamination
and encountered
opposition
at most laboratories
concerned.
5. The
hypothesis
concerned synthesized
materials and
did not apply
to natural
products.
6. Heat resistant
materials
developed
in
the last
decade produced
a revolution
in a number
of industries.
7.
Automatized
information
processing
radically modified
the method
devised. 8.
The
crystal produced
revealed cracked
faces.
Ex.
8. Identify
the structures
according
to Patterns
3 - 5 and give
Russian equivalents
of
the relevant
part of the
sentence.
A. 1.
The plants
affected by
the cold produced
low crops.
2. The
Conference
attended by
scientists
from
different
countries
discussed
new trends
and methods
in this
field of
research. 3.
One of
the
rights enjoyed
by University
scientists
is that
of combining
research
with teaching.
4. The discovery
followed
by further
experimental work
stimulated
research in
this area.
B. 1.
Mathematics,
mechanics,
statics and
geometrical
optics
referred to
as classical
disciplines
started
mathematical
traditions
in the history
of natural
science. 2.
The heads
of the laboratories
were asked
questions formulated
and
agreed upon
by a group
of sociologists.
3. The scientist's
eloquence
substituted
for logical
argumentation
in defending
an "extreme"
viewpoint failed
to win the
audience over.
4. The
mixture allowed
to stay
overnight gradually
decomposed.
5. The physicists showed
that particles
thought
of as "elementary" were
in fact "non-elementary".
6. The subjects
dealt with
under this
topic aroused
a heated discussion.
Reading Practice (Patterns 3, 4, 5)
Text 3. 1) Read the text to yourself and be ready for a comprehension check-up.
Last month our laboratory developed a new technique required for thermodynamic
studies of a two-phase system. The technique allowed us to obtain results
predicted by theory. The results obtained disagreed with earlier data
reported by Dr. D. At our laboratory seminar Prof. S. suggested a new
model to account for the mechanism of the process involved in the system.
The model suggested described adequately the thermodynamic peculiarities
studied by Dr. D.
2) Read the text. Follow the course of events concentrating on the
Ved predicates while omitting the Ved attributes.
Pattern Revision (Patterns 1- 5)
(to be done at home in written form)
Ex. 9. A. Identify the structures according to Patterns 1 - 5 and give
Russian equivalents of, the relevant part of the sentence.
.1. The usual procedure is that information storage is followed
by information analysis. 2. The procedure proposed provided the
required
mechanism
of reaction. 3. The opening session of the Congress was preceded
by a meeting
of the General Assembly to elect a new president. 4. It must be admitted
that the problem of science classification can be approached from
several viewpoints. 5. There are fields which cannot be dealt with
on a national
scale only, such as environmental protection, space exploration and
so on. 6. The difficulties encountered by anyone who attempted to
solve the problem are much greater than those faced in the endeavour
to
reach
the
summit of Mount Everest. 7. In most important applications cotton
has been substituted for by synthetic fibres. 8. The rate of the
reaction is affected by the change in such parameters as concentration,
temperature and pressure. 9. Under these circumstances one is faced
with a magnified
form of a danger common to all inventions: a tendency to use them
whether or not the occasion demand. 10. In most cases the solution
of such problems
is called for by industrial needs. 11. It is often argued that in
the XX century we are left with no expansion of wisdom and with greater
need
for it. 12. When at last the patient is allowed to sleep he will
probably wake up after some 10 -12 hours.
13. These ideas are hardly
recognized
as mathematics at all by the people trained in the classical branches
of the subject.
l4. Some aspects of the foregoing topics are dealt
with in the next chapter, and a number of problems created by some
of the
new activities are mentioned but not discussed in detail M. 5. Some
diseases
may show only when an -organism, containing mutant genes is influenced
by certain factors of the environment. 16. No attempts have been
made to list all the contributions in which different procedures
have been
developed and later used. Recent discoveries in all sciences
have been greatly assisted by the developments in contemporary research
techniques dealt with in the last section of this book. 18. The
congress
attended
by scientists from all the institutions concerned attracted much
attention and was referred to as a most representative forum in this
field. 19.
An
alternative to the models discussed above is the steady-state theory
of continuous creation referred to earlier and depicted in Fig. 1.
B. Give English
equivalents of the italicized part of the sentences, using
passive structures and the verbs: to affect, to allow, to attend,
to develop,
to deal with, to face, to follow, to make use of, to refer to.
1. За докладом последовала бурная дискуссия. 2. На
скорость реакции влияет множество других факторов.
3. Этот вопрос будет подробно рассмотрен в
главе III. 4. На этой стадии мы столкнулись с новыми трудностями.
5. Ему не дали
возможности закончить эту работу. 6. В последнее время эта теория
часто упоминается во многих статьях. 7. Семинар, на
котором присутствовало всего 5 человек, прошел
вяло и неинтересно. 8. Для того чтобы преодолеть эти
недостатки, использовали новую методику, специально разработанную для данного
эксперимента.
C. Translate into English.
1. Проблема была впервые поставлена (осознана) в XVIII веке 2. Предполагается,
что полученные расчетные данные были проверены экспериментально.
З.Теория была принята большинством ученых после того, как были
получены
новые доказательства
в ее поддержку. 4. (В статье) представлены новые данные относительно
механизма этого процесса. 5. Это расхождение можно объяснить разными
методиками измерения.
6. (В работе) использован новый метод расчета этого параметра и предложена
новая модель процесса. 7. Особое внимание уделено сравнению экспериментально
полученных результатов с результатами, предсказанными теоретически.
8. В лаборатории установлено новое оборудование.
3. VIND FORMS:
POSITION AND FUNCTION IN THE SENTENCE
a) UNAMBIGUOUS VING FORMS Pattern Study (6, 7a)
Pattern 6:
. . .Ving (N2). . .Vt.
. .
Recognizing a problem is the first step to its solution. Постановка
проблемы означает первый шаг на пути к ее решению.
Pattern 7а:
. . .Ving(N2). . .Nj.
. .V. . .
Recognizing a problem the scientist makes the first step
to its solution. Поставив проблему (поняв, что проблема существует),
ученый делает первый шаг на пути к ее решению.
Pattern Practice (6, 7а)
Ex.
10. Ideumy the structures according to Patterns 6 -7a and give
Russian equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence as shown in
the following example.
Example: Noticing relationships in his observations, the
scientist attempts to classify and explain them.
Noticing. . . the scientist attempts. . . . Заметив. . .
ученый пытается. . . .
Noticing relationship in his observations is very important
for every scientist.
Noticing. . . is important. . . . Замечать. . . важно. .
. .
1. Establishing relationship between the phenomena of
the
Universe
is a major task
of theory. 2. Having reported of his discovery of rays of
unknown nature
Bequerel
excited the curiosity of Marie Curie. 3. Realizing the necessity
for a different approach the physicists reluctantly abandoned
the
project.
4.
Confining his attention to one problem the scientist will
surely achieve its solution much sooner. 5. Putting the
discovery
to use sometimes
requires more effort than making it. 6. Pointing out their
mistakes to some people
is often quite difficult.
Pattern Study (7b, 8)
Pattern 7b:
. . .Nf. . .Vf. .(N2/Prep. phr.). .Ving. . .
1) The scientist is often interested in a problem, disregarding
possible consequences of its solution. Ученый часто интересуется
проблемой,
не обращая внимания на возможные последствия ее решения.
2) Normally the atom has equal amounts of positive and
negative charges, making it "neutral". В обычном
состоянии атом
имеет равные количества положительного и отрицательного
зарядов, что делает его "нейтральным".
3) The lighter, negatively charged particles in the
atom are
electrons moving in orbits around the nucleus. Более
легкие,
отрицательно заряженные частицы в атоме - электроны,
которые вращаются по орбитам вокруг ядра.
Pattern 8:
. . .V. . .Ving. . .
Nobody can avoid making occasional mistakes. Никто не
может избежать того, чтобы иногда не делать ошибок.
Pattern Vocabulary (8). List 5
Remember a few word groups followed by Ving.
it is no good, it is no use - бесполезно, не имеет смысла
(делать); it is worth (while) - стоит (делать), заслуживает
(усилий,
действий и т.
д.); one cannot help - невозможно не (делать).
Pattern Practice (7b, 8)
Ex.
11. Identify the structures according to Patterns 7b, 8 and give Russian
equivalents of the relevant
part of
the sentence.
1. Every new idea is immediately taken up and
developed further, forming the initial point
of an avalanche-like
process. 2.
It has been shown
that there is a distortion of the crystal lattice,
accompanying the charge-ordered state. 3. What
is worth doing is worth
doing well.
4. At this stage innovation
becomes a group and not an individual activity,
involving both a sophisticated body of information
and a sophisticated
technology.
5. Soon Pierre
Curie joined Marie Curie in her search for the
"mysterious" substance,
giving up his own research. 6. It is no good
stressing a paradox if you wish to
excite curiosity of the audience unprepared,
for the lecture. 7. In 1913 Bohr proposed the
solar theory of the atom, giving rise to still
greater
activity in both theoretical and experimental
nuclear physics. 8. Some people have been so
scared reading about harmful effects of smoking
that
they gave up reading. 9. Now mention should be
made of the fact that geochemistry applies the
concepts of chemistry to terrestrial circumstances,
studying
the distribution of elements in the course of
geologic evolution. 10.
The editor could not help detecting many errors
both of fact and of thinking. 11. Are these prognoses
really worth making? 12. To find out more about
the space scientists sent little moons, or satellites,
circling in orbits
above the Earth.
Pattern Study (9)
P a t t e r n 9:
. . .Prep. . . .Ving
The success of any research depends largely on
precisely defining its objective. Успех любого
исследования
в значительной степени
зависит
от четкого определения
его цели.
Unfortunately the advantage of joining efforts
for a complicated job is not always understood.
К сожалению,
преимущество
объединения усилий
для
выполнения сложного дела не всегда понимается.
By realizing the threat to our environment
we have made the first step to its preservation.
Осознав
угрозу окружающей
среде, мы
сделали первый
шаг на пути к ее охране.
Pattern Practice (9)
Ex.
12. Substitute the proper English words
from the list below for the \ussian words
in brackets.
1. His research (привело к установлению)
a new principle. The success of the
space research
program (явился
результатом соединения)
the latest
achievements in science and technology.
3. Using modern installations and techniques
the
scientists
(удалось
решить) a complicated
engineering problem.
4. Pure, science (стремится постичь)
the laws of the material world. 5. Traditionally
chemists
(занимались
измерениями)
the
properties
of matter
and (анализом) the reactions ,bj( which
some
chemical substances are transformed into
others. 6. A quantum
chemist (интересует
построение) adequate mathematical
models of atomic and molecular structures.
7. Prof. E. was the first to see the
advantages
of the new
approach
and
(настаивал на использовании)
it to interpret the results. 8. Adequate
theories often (избавляли ученых от проведения)
many
useless
experiments.
9. This group
of engineers
(ответственна
за модернизацию) the laboratory equipment.
10. The advent of electronic computers
(способствовало освобождению)
man's brain
from the labour
of measurement and computation.
to aid in freeing; to aim at understanding;
to be concerned with measuring and
analysing; to be interested
in constructing;
to be responsible for
modernizing; to insist on making use
of; to prevent scientists from making;
to
result from combining; to result in establishing;
to
succeed
in working out.
Ex. 13. Read the first
sentence and complete the second one
using Pattern 9. Make
use of the prepositions
and the word
groups
given below.
To test the idea, the scientists have
carried out the experiment. They did
it ....
1. without; in addition to; in spite
of; instead of; in view of; by.
2. to install new equipment; to propose
an explanation of their own; to
collect more evidence for its support;
to modify the model;
to give up the idea; to establish the
mechanism of the process; to join the
efforts of two laboratories; to encounter
difficulties with conventional equipment;
to put to use a recent
discovery; to
make use of a new
principle; to modify a conventional
device.
Ex. 14. Identify the
structures according to Pattern 9 and
give Russian equivalents
of the
relevant
part of the
sentence.
1. If you never thought of asking a
question you are not interested in
having the
answer. 2. If
you want
to succeed
in interesting
the audience you should not try surprising
them with an isolated fact.
3. By having
defined one's research objective one
has already made the first, and the
most important, step towards the final
.success. 4. Modern chemistry is primarily
concerned
with building structural
bonds between
the elements of matter. 5. Many useless
experiments were prevented from being
made by
an adequate theory.
6. A true scientist is interested in
being told about his mistakes.
7. Research is searching without knowing
what you are going to find.
8. Any single card should contain notes
from only one source. This
will aid in arranging and organizing
the materials for your research paper.
9. We do not know how to solve the problem of interesting schoolchildren
in science. 10. His research resulted in establishing a new mechanism
of the process. 11. Some people say
that theory is a device for saving time.
Reading Practice (Patterns 6 - 9)
Text 4. 1) Read the text to yourself and be ready for a comprehension check-up.
PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE
As
students of science you are probably sometimes puzzled by the terms
"pure" and "applied" science. Are these two totally
different activities, having little or
no interconnection? Let us begin by examining what is done by each.
Pure science is primarily concerned
with the development of theories
(or, as
they are frequently
called,
models) establishing
relationships
between
the phenomena of the universe.
When they are sufficiently validated
these theories
(hypotheses,
models) become
the working laws or
principles of
science. In carrying out this
work, the pure scientist usually
disregards
its
application to practical
affairs, confining
his attention to
explanations of how and why events
occur.
2) Check up for comprehension.
1. Does the author give definition
of both "pure" and
"applied" science?
2. Find the word which is used
as an equivalent of "sciences".
3. When does a hypothesis become
a principle of science? 4. What
questions
is the pure scientist concerned
with? 5. Find the words equivalent
to ╚how and why events occur».
6. What is usually disregarded
by the pure scientist?
Pattern Revision (6- 9)
(to be done at home in written form)
Ex.
15. A. Identify the structures
according to the Patterns
6 - 9 and give Russian
equivalents of
the
relevant part
of the sentence.
1. It is correct to say
that basic research is
directed
toward understanding
the
foundations of nature without
taking into
account their practical
applicability. 2. Finding
an adequate solution to
this most urgent technological
problem will surely require
much time and still more effort. 3. Today we cannot help witnessing a
tendency in science to direct the collective efforts
of a research team at
the achievement of a common goal. 4. Let's proceed by dividing research
into three stages and examining each stage to find
what functions of the research
process may be automated without endangering creativity. 5. Such a configuration,
in addition to being amenable to analytical
treatment, has significant
practical importance. 6. Being interested in the subject which you are
studying is the best motivation for learning
it. 7. Fundamental research
is that which you undertake without caring whether the results will be
of practical value or not. 8. The scientist
and public must equally
share the responsibility for finding a desirable solution to many modern
technological and social problems. 9. In determining
the mechanism of genetic
information transmission biochemists have observed that "the language
of, life" is really a simple and elegant code.
10. Taking into account
individual components resulted in a radical change of the entire system.
11. One of the ways to solve the problem
of feeding
the ever-growing world
population is by turning fishing from a' hunting to a farming operation.
12. Several
review committees were formed, including
a special environmental
group. 13. Increasing the amount of available technical information scientists
also contribute to transformation of
some well-rooted
beliefs.
B. Give Russian equivalents
of the italicized parts
of the sentences,
using the verbs
given below.
Mind Pattern
9.
1. Руководитель работы
всегда настаивал на
проверке полученных
результатов.
2. Такая
проверка имела
целью исключить
случайные ошибки и помогла
получить надежные данные.
3. Присутствие примеси
в образцах
помешало получить
воспроизводимые результаты.
4. Каждое новое открытие
приводит к возникновению
новых областей
исследований. 5. Коренные
изменения в такой традиционно
экспериментальной
науке, как
химия, явились
результатом применения
в ней квантовой теории.
6.
Через
несколько
лет
ученому удалось получить
экспериментальные результаты,
подтверждающие
его
теорию. 7. Ученые многих
стран
занимаются изучением
этого явления и должны
в равной мере
нести ответственность за
применение его возможных
результатов на
практике.
to aid in; to aim at; to
be concerned with; to share
the
responsibility
for; to insist
on; to
prevent
from; to result
from; to result
in; to succeed in.
b) UNAMBIGUOUS COMBINATION
OF VING AND N
Pattern Study (10)
Pattern 10:
. . .Pron. poss./N's. . .Ving. . .
immediate recognition of a discovery depends largely on its being made
at a proper moment. Immediate recognition of a discovery depends
largely on the fact that it is made at a proper moment. Немедленное признание
открытия в значительной степени зависит от того, что оно совершено в
нужный момент.
The story of radioactivity begins with Henry Bequerel's having reported
his discovery of rays of unknown nature. The
story of radioactivity begins with the fact that Henry Bequerel reported
his discovery of rays
of unknown nature. История открытия радиоактивности начинается с того,
что Анри Бекерель сообщил о своем открытии лучей неизвестной природы.
Pattern Practice (10)
Ex.
16. Identify the structures according to Pattern 10; transform
them into clauses as shown above, and give Russian equivalents of
the relevant
part of the sentence.
1. Mendeleev's having
established a periodic law of nature has entered his name into the
history book of the world science. 2. Success
in science often results from the scientist's confining his atten╜tion
to one problem for many a year. 3. The results of the experiment depended
upon his having applied the proper technique. 4. The idea of scientists'
being responsible for most ills of the present day situation is unfortunately
quite popular. 5. A brain-storming session consists in everybody's proposing
as many, and as wild, ideas as possible, without being concerned as to
whether they are workable. 6. Science is sometimes humorously defined as
a practice of the scientist's satisfying his curiosity at the expense of
the Government.
c) AMBIGUOUS COMBINATION OF VING AND
Pattern Study (11)
Pattern 11:
. . .N...Ving. . .
l) Some problems can be solved only by the world
scientists joining their efforts. Some
problems can be solved only if the world scientists join their efforts.
Некоторые проблемы могут
быть решены только объединением усилий ученых всего мира. 2) Such problems
can be solved only by a scientist fully realizing the possible danger.
Such problems
can be solved only
by a scientist who fully realizes the possible danger. Такие проблемы
может решить только ученый,
полностью осознающий возможную
опасность.
Pattern Practice (11)
Ex. 17. Identify the structures according to Pattern 11; transform them
into clauses as shown above and give Russian equivalents of the relevant
part of the sentence.
1. The mid-20th century has witnessed the scientist becoming the most
valued member of society. 2. The original idea of a discovery is often
the product
of one man working in a group environment. 3. There is more chance
now of this suggestion being true. 4. A true scientist is prepared
for his
mistakes being pointed out to him. 5. The snobs at the institute could
not tolerate electrical engineers walking around with their dirty hands
and spoiling the purity of the scientific atmosphere. 6. It is believed
that there is hardly any chance of there being a mistake in these calculations.
Pattern Study (12)
Pattern 12a:
. . .(with) N. . .Ving/Ved, N1. . .Vf.
. .
With research involving more and more people, the profession of a
scientist has become one of the most popular nowadays.-As research
involves more
and more people the profession of a scientist has become one of the
most popular nowadays. По мере того как научное исследование требует
участия
все большего числа людей, профессия ученого становится одной из самых
популярных в наши дни.
Pattern 12b:
: . . . Ni. . .Vf, (with) N. . .Ving/Ved. . .
Mathematization of science is witnessed in almost all its branches, with
specialists in humanities hurriedly joining the process. - Mathematization
of science is witnessed in almost all its branches, and specialists in
the humanities hurriedly join the process. Математизация науки наблюдается
во всех ее областях, и специалисты в области гуманитарных наук спешат включиться
в этот процесс.
Pattern Practice (12)
Ex. 18. Identify the structures according to Pattern 12 and give Russian
equivalents of the relevant part of the sentence.
1. Some scientists do not distinguish between pure and applied mathematics,
the distinction being, in fact, of recent origin. 2. At one time a
giant lake extended from Vienna to the Aral Sea, its last descendants
being
the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea of today. 3. They took all the measurements
during the actual operation of the machine, this being the usual practice
in those days. 4. With everyone being a layman
in most fields but
his own,
it is very
important
to exchange
information
on
major developments.
5.
The universe
is now essentially
composed of about 90
percent hydrogen and 9 percent
helium, with the remaining
1 percent accounting
for the more complex atoms.
6. The project abandoned,
the leadership in this
field passed to another
institute. 7. Originally
a mathematician, he
became engaged first in theoretical
physics and then in
space research, all these fields
being closely interconnected.
Reading Practice (Patterns 1-12)
Text 5. 1) Read the text to yourself and be ready for a comprehension check-up.
MATHEMATIZATION OF
NATURAL SCIENCES
Exact
science in its generally accepted
sense can be referred
to as a family
of specialized
natural
sciences,
each of
them providing
evidence
and information
about the different
aspects
of nature by somewhat
different working
methods.
It follows that
mathematics in
its pure sense
does not enter into this
frame,
its
object
of study
being not
nature itself.
Being
independent of
all observations
of the outside
world, it
attempts to
build logical
systems
based on axioms.
In other words,
it concentrates
on formulating
the language
of mathematical
symbols and
equations which
may be applied
to the functional
relations found
in nature.
This "mathematization", in the opinion of most specialists, is witnessed
first in physics
which deals with general laws of matter and energy on subatomic, atomic
and molecular levels. Further application of these
mathematical laws
and studies is made by chemistry and results in structural bonds
between the elements
of matter being established.
2) Check up for
comprehension.
1. What is generally
understood by exact
science? 2. How
does the author
describe
"specialized" natural
sciences? 3. Why
does mathematics
not belong to this
family? 4. What
is the objective
of mathematics?
5. Is there
only one definition
of the objective?
6. What does the
application of
mathematical laws
in chemistry result
in?
Pattern Revision
(10 -12)
(to be done at
home in written
form)
Ex. 19. A.
Identify
the structures
according
to Patterns 10-12
and give
Russian equivalents
of the relevant
part of the
sentence.
1. The possibility
of there
being life
on Mars
is very
doubtful.
2. The most
interesting
of these
phenomena
is the reduction
of carbon,
nitrogen
and sulfur,
each concentrated
at a different
interface,
two being
out
of immediate
contact with
air. 3. This
is
the principle
of inertia
-
if something
is moving,
with
nothing
touching
it and completely
undisturbed,
it will
go on
forever at
a uniform
speed in
a straight
line. 4.
An
understanding
of these
particles,
in spite
of their
being connected
with
the basic
forces of
the universe,
presents
a
tremendous
challenge
to
the human
intellect.
5. The test
consists
of repeated
measurements
of intensity
with various
sizes
of apertures
being used.
6. The
difference
between the
two values
probably
accounts
for the measured
sensitivity
being higher
than that
predicted
by theory.
7.
One of the
objectives
of
carrying
on research
at
the university
is
to provide
intellectual
exercise
for the lecturer.
This is achieved
by the lecturer
doing research
between lectures
and other
duties.
This presupposes
the
necessary
equipment
being available
at
the university.
8.
Man's principal
function
in space
being maintenance
and repair
work is beyond
any doubt.
9.
The 35-year
gap in
the appreciation
of Mendel's
discovery
is often
attributed
to Mendel's
having been
a
modest monk
living in
an out-of-the-way
Moravian
monastery.
10.
A few more
functional
elements,
germanium
perhaps
being a good
candidate,
may be discovered
in the future.
B. Give English
equivalents
of the italicized
part of the
sentences.
1. Мысль
о том, что
и
ученые
и общественность
несут ответственность
за решение
этой проблемы,
кажется
вполне
логичной
в настоящее
время.
2. История изучения
пульсаров
началась 1968 году
с того,
что радиоастрономы
объявили об открытии
необычного класса
объектов.
3.
Эти
объекты получили
шутливое
название
"пульсары", причем
это название быстро стало стандартным
термином.
4. Считают,
что
каждое исследование
начинается
постановки
ученым проблемы.
5.
Ученый
получил новые
доказательства того, что
его гипотеза
верна. 6.
Так как
большинство субатомных
частиц
имеет очень короткий
период
жизни, электрон,
протон
и нейтрон
остаются
основными
объектами
изучения
электронике.
General Revision
(1-12)
(to be
done at
home in
written
form)
Ex.
20. Identify
the structures
according
to Patterns
1-12
and give
their
Russian equivalents.
1. It
is not
claimed
that
the research
is aimed
at deriving
an entirely
different
set
of axioms.
2. A
bit of
work
was
needed
to
establish
this
but once
the result
was
accepted,
it was
the best
instrument
for
exploring
the atom.
3. In
the
early
days
of World
War II
many
engineers
were
faced
with
the task
of
mastering
the technics
of
using
radar.
4. Methods
employed
in
solving
a problem
strongly
influenced
by the
research
objective.
5.
The inquiry
Id be
greatly
helped
by distinguishing
two different
classes
research
techniques.
6. In
one's
search
to understand
what
happens
in
this
particular
case,
one cannot
help
being
influenced
by lie
history
of
quite
another
problem.
7. The
question
of collective
scientific
discoveries
has already
been
raised,
it having
been
suggested
that
a solution
of some
urgent
problems
can be
best
achieved
at
way.
8. During
such
experiments
interfering
influences
must
bе excluded
and an
artificial
environment
created
in
which
the contribution
of the
individual
components
can be
taken
account
of and
possibly
even
measured.
9. If
the
scientist
succeeds
in confirming
his
repeated
observations
it may
be stated
that
an empirical
law or
rule
of
nature
has
been
discovered.
10. Let
us examine
various
types
of such
mispronunciations,
remembering,
of course,
that
they
are(
mispronunciations
only
in the
sense
of being
looked
upon
unfavourably
by cultured
speakers.
11. Social
scientists
and physical
scientists,
each
group
representing
a diversity
of specialized
disciplines,
were
brought
together
to review
some
implications
of the
interaction
between
science
and society.
12. The
oceans
and the
atmosphere
are strongly
coupled
systems
and cannot
very
well
be treated
separately.
The final
circulation
pattern
is determined
by the
interaction
of the
two systems,
each
system
influencing
the other
in a
complicated
cycle
of events.
13. The
meteorological
working
group
concluded
that
meteorological
research
can be
furthered
by a
trained
meteorologist
making
observations
from
an orbiting
station.
14. It
is generally
accepted
that
experiments
in geology
are far
more
difficult
than
in physics
and chemistry
because
of the
greater
size
of the
objects
and because
of the
geologic
time
scale
exceeding
the human
time
scale
by a
million
and more
times.
15. General
scientific
methods
can be
approached
from
a historical
point
of view
by giving
a brief
account
of the
development
of scientific
concepts
and theories.
16. Two
types
of scientific
investigators
may be
distinguished:
classicists
and romanticists,
the former
being
inclined
to design
schemes
and to
use
the deductions
from
working
hypotheses,
the latter
more
fit for
intuitive
discoveries
of functional
relations
between
phenomena
and,
therefore,
more
able
to open
up new
fields
of study.
17. With
extended "operation
in space
being
a design
goal,
special
attention
was given
to reliability
problems.
.
18. The
lack
of interest
of neurophysiologists
in the
macromolecular
theory
of memory
can be
accounted
for by
recognizing
that
the theory,
whether
true
or false,
is clearly
premature.
WORD
STUDY
1.
LEARN
TO
RECOGNIZE
INTERNATIONAL
WORDS
(to
be
done
in
class)
Ex.
21. A. Recognize
familiar
words:
archives
['a:kaivz],
chaos
['ke(i)os],
cycle
['saikl],
ocean
['ouj(e)n].
B.
Givetwo'
Russian
equivalents
of
different
origin.
Example: deduction
-
дедукция,
вывод.
Defect,
to
ignore, substance,
to
surprise,
to
transform,
variation.
C. Make
up
English-Russian
pairs
of
the
words
equivalent
in
meaning.
1.
Decay;
2.
derive;
3.
determine;
4.
essence;
5.
goal;
6.
prevent;
7.
quality;
8.
quantity;
9.
ultimate;
10.
valid.
1.
Выводить
(дериват,
производный);
2.
годный,
действительный
(инвалид,
негодный);
3.
качество
(квалификация);
4.
количество
(квант,
порция);
5.
окончательный
(ультиматум,
последнее
условие);
6.
определять
(детерминизм,
детерминанта);
7.
предотвращать
(превентивный);
8.
распад
(декаданс,
упадок);
9.
суть
(эссенция,
квинтэссенция);
10.
цель
(гол).
D. Give
Russian
equivalents
of
the
following:
to
focus
attention
on
smth.;
functional
relations;
general
laws
of
matter;
individual
components;
intimate
knowledge.
2.
LEARN TO
RECOGNIZE THE
STRUCTURE
OF
ENGLISH WORDS
(to
be done
at home
in written
form)
Ex.
22. Recognize
the words
formed according
to the
following patterns
and give
their Russian equivalents.
Pattern 1: V+-er/-or N
E
x a m p l
e: to work
- работать,
worker -
рабочий, работник;
to transform
- трансформировать,
transformer -
трансформатор.
1.
Theory is an
intellectual instrument granting
a
deep contentment
to its
designer and
to its
users. 2.
The founders
of the
Royal Society
were typical
natural philosophers.
3. The
isolated inventor
is still
the usual
source of
innovation. 4.
Some experimenters
were prevented
from doing
experiments by
their faith
in a
fallacious theory.
5. The
lecturer should
not try
surprising his listeners.
Pattern
2:
V+-ment N
E
x a
m p
1 e;
to develop
- развивать,
development -
развитие,
(процесс),
событие, явление
(результат).
The
announcement of
discovery; the
development of
the national
economy; recent
developments in
nuclear physics;
the achievement
of a
solution; the
achievements of
the
USSR
in space
research; the
establishment of
the Siberian
Department of
the USSR
Academy of
Sciences; the
establishment of
a new
principle; educational
establishments
of
the country;
a clear
statement of the hypothesis.
Pattern
3:
V+-tion/-ion/-ition
N
Example; to
predict -
предсказывать, prediction
- предсказывание
(процесс), предсказание
(результат).
1.
Не announced
his discovery
in a
special communication
to
the
French Academy
of Sciences.
2, His
motivation in
carrying on
this investigation
was not
properly understood
at first.
3. Definition
of most
fundamental concepts
is
always
difficult. 4.
Pure science
is concerned
with
the
establishment of
fundamental relations
among
the
phenomena of
the universe.
5. Finding
a satisfactory
explanation for
this sort
of interaction
is not
so
easy.
Pattern
4: N+-(u)al
Adj.
Example: condition -
условие, conditional
- условный.
National
economy; such
conceptual subjects
as mathematics;
theory is
an intellectual
instrument; natural
resources; individual
components.
Pattern
5: Adj.
-ent/-ant N-ence/-ance
Example: different -
различный, отличный,
difference -
различие, разница,
отличие.
A
competent scientist
- the
competence of
a scientist;
a significant
statement -
the significance
of a
statement; an
ignorant audience
- the
ignorance
of
an audience;
relevant information
- the
relevance of
information.
Pattern
6: N 
V
Example: influence -
влияние, to
influence -
оказывать влияние;
a question
- вопрос,
to question
- ставить
под вопрос,
сомневаться.
1.
Problems of
this kind
usually interest
pure scientists.
2. Information
theory aroused
considerable interest
among intellectuals.
3. This
fact limits
the scope
of
investigation.
4. In
the same
way the
necessary limits
can be
found for
these coefficients.
5. We
note that
these figures
are much
more
reliable than the previous
ones. 6.
The text
is difficult to
read, there being too
many reference notes in
it. 7. This argument will
convince anyone
who doubts this point.
8. There can be no doubt
about it.
Ex.
23. Make
up singular-plural
pairs.
Foci,
quanta, maximum,
analyses, vacua,
axis, maxima,
radius, genii,
radii, locus,
nuclei, analysis,
focus, hypothesis,
criteria, nucleus,
quantum, crisis,
theses, crises,
momenta, axes,
synthesis, criterion,
phenomena, genius,
species, loci,
hypotheses, thesis,
momentum, syntheses,
phenomenon, vacuum,
species.
Ex.
24. Practise
orally in
using the
names of
specialities and
sciences.
Example: am
a mathematician
but I
am concerned
with problems
of economy.
Biologist,
physicist, sociologist,
theoretician, biochemist,
historian, psychologist,
geologist, experimenter,
economist.
3.
LEARN TO
DEDUCE THE
MEANING OF
ENGLISH WORDS
(to
be done
at home
in written
form and
to be
discussed in
class)
В
разных употреблениях
одного и
того же
английского слова
и его
производных обычно
обнаруживается общий
элемент смысла, который может
присутствовать в
нескольких разных русских
словах.
Выбор русского
эквивалента определяется
английским контекстом
и нормой
русского
языка.
Ex.
25. A.
Give adequate
Russian equivalents
of the
italicized words:
Background -
общий элемент
смысла: предшествование
в пространстве
или во
времени. Частотные русские эквиваленты:
фон, задний
план; образование,
квалификация, биографические
данные
и т.
д.
1.
This vacancy
can be
filled only
by a
scientist
with
outstanding record
and background. 2. This
text deals with the methods
of geological
science, their
historical background
and development. 3. People
of
all backgrounds and all
ages all over the
world need peace.
4.
What
is the background
of the problem? 5. Much
depends on
the personal interest of
the student, and on his
linguistic and
cultural background.
Case
- общий
элемент смысла:
совокупность конкретных
условий или
обстоятельств, характеризующих
ситуацию.
Частотные русские
эквиваленты: случай,
положение дел;
доводы, доказательства, аргументы
и
т. д.
1.
In any
case the
results of
the experiment
will be
of great
value. 2.This
is really
the case,
a true
scientific breakthrough
of
major
importance must
be anticipated
in the
next decade.
3. He
presented a
strong case
against a
proposed solution.
4. Research
workers in
need of
funds could
apply for
grants if
they
could
make out a convincing
case. 5. He
stated
his case so well
that the committee supported
the project.
6. I
believe a case
exists for revision of
the
hypothesis.
Develop,
development(s) -
общий элемент
смысла: развитие
во времени,
развитие как
изменение, зарождение
и развитие. Частотные русские
эквиваленты: to
develop -
развивать(ся), разрабатывать,
излагать,
раскрывать, проявлять(ся)
и
т.
д.; development
- развитие,
разработка, изложение,
результат развития
и т.
д.
1.
Plants develop
from seeds. 2. The
hypothesis gradually
developed in
the scientist's
mind. 3.
No positive
evidence has
been developed to support the theory.
4. The
solution of
the energy
problem depends
on developing
alternative sources
of energy. 5. Independent
study
is
one of
the best
habits that
a scientist
can develop. 6. Since
World War
II much
has been
done to
develop national
economies of
some developing
countries of
Asia and
Africa. 7.
The plasma
is forced
to behave
as a
continuum, no
instabilities developing. 8. Suddenly
a
development
occurred which
prevented research
in this area for
some time.
9. This
paper
deals with
recent
developments in theoretical
physics. 10.
The
development of photographic
films requires
a darkroom.
Facilitate,
facility
(usually
plural) - общий элемент
смысла: наилучшие
условия,
возможности
для осуществления чего-либо. Частотные
русские эквиваленты: to facilitate
- облегчать,
способствовать и т. д.; facilities
-
возможность, удобства,
средства, оборудование,
устройства и т. д.
1.
The
new
equipment will
facilitate the
experiment. 2.
After the
student
acquires
considerable facility
in understanding
and speaking, he
learns
to read and
write.
3. Novosibirsk
is an
industrial center
offering its
inhabitants many
urban advantages,
educational
facilities and cultural
opportunities. 4.
We are
planning the
directions
and
the scope
of research
and the
provision of experimental
facilities. 5. To carry
out this task we need
large engineering facilities.
6. To complete
the project we need adequate
facilities
for research.
Imply,
implication(s), implicit
- общий
элемент смысла:
невысказанное словами,
но логически
вытекающее из
чего-то. Частотные
русские эквиваленты:
to imply
- подразумевать,
означать, иметь в виду;
implication -
скрытый смысл,
значение; что-то
вытекает из
чего-либо и
т. Д.;
implicit -
подразумеваемый, не
выраженный прямо
и т.
д.
1.
The book
does not
claim to
give more
than the
name implies. 2. People
are always
talking about
fundamental research,
implying the existence of
a nameless
opposite. 3.
Recent observations
of various
astronomical objects
together with
their theoretical
implications were
discussed at
the conference.
4. The
cutting
of
sentences into
the subject and predicate
groups was
implicit in traditional
grammar analysis. 5. Dirac's
theory implied
that there should
be the same number of
anti-particles as particles
in the universe.
6. The
speaker implies (sends
out information)
and
the listener infers (receives
information
from the implication). 7.
What
are the implications of this
statement?
Involve
- общий
элемент смысла:
включение в
деятельность, движение
или объем.
Частотные русские
эквиваленты: to
involve -
включать в
себя; влечь
за собой, вызывать; вовлекать;
запутывать, осложнять
и т.
д.; to
be involved
- быть
включенным, вовлеченным,
участвующим, сложным
и т.
д.
1.
The first
industrial revolution
involved the
replacement of
human and
animal muscle
power by
the power
of machines.
2. A
technical
project often
starts as
a simple
practical activity
involving only
a few
scientists or
engineers. 3.
This institute
is involved
in a research project
on laser
techniques. 4.
The activities
involved in
various space
programs have
created a
revolution in
scientific research.
6. The
solution of
the
equations
involved is
reduced to
a sequence
of basic
arithmetical operations.
Matter
- общий
элемент смысла:
нечто материальное,
ощутимое, существенное;
то, что
имеет значение. Частотные русские
эквиваленты: matter
- материя,
вещество; материал
(статьи, книги
и т.
п.), сущность,
предмет; дело,
вопрос и
т. д.;
to matter
- иметь
значение.
1.
Chemistry deals
with changes
in
the
composition of
matter, physics
is concerned
with changes
in the
location or
size of
matter. 2. Animal and
human organisms
fight off
infections and
other invasions
by foreign
matter. 3.
The
subject
matter of
the lecture
was the
influence of
the climate
on the
development of
a nation.
4.
This collection
of stories
provides an
interesting reading
matter.
5.
It
is
no easy
matter to
describe this
phenomenon in
detail.
6.
His taking
part in
the discussion
made the
matters worse. 7. The answer to this
question, however,
will hardly
matter under
present
conditions.
B. Make up
English-Russian pairs
of the
word groups
equivalent in
meaning.
As
a matter
of fact;
in a
matter of
seconds; it
does not
matter; it
is a
matter of
common experience;
it is
a matter
of
common
knowledge.
За
какие-нибудь секунды;
каждый знает
из опыта;
не имеет
значения (не
важно); общеизвестно;
фактически.
4.
LEARN TO
DEDUCE THE
MEANING OF
WORD COMBINATIONS
(exs
26-28 to
be done
in class;
exs 29,
30 to
be done
at home
in written
form)
Ex.
26. Give
Russian equivalents
of the
N'. .
,N". . .N" groups
and the hyphenated
word groups.
1.
A group
of people
working together
to make
an invention
can be
called a
group inventor.
2. A
research group
produces a
group
environment
for its
individual members.
3. Science
is a
Janus-headed figure.
4. Scientific
development is
an avalanche-like
process. 5.
The lecturer
tries to
bring the
audience up-to-date
by giving
them
the
latest information.
Ex.
27. Give
Russian equivalents
of the
following word
combinations: 1.
to bear
in mind
(this should
always be
borne in
mind); 2. to design
the experiment
(the experiment
was not
designed to
measure this
quantity); 3.
to hold
possibilities for
(the problems
hold possibilities
for practical
application); 4.
to make
strides (science
is making
greater strides
every year);
5. to
meet needs
(to manufacture
commodities to meet human
needs); 6.
to open
the way
to (one
daring theory
opens the
way to the
next); 7.
to put
to the
fore (they
say
that
nowadays the
group inventor
has been put
to the fore and replaced
the
isolated
scientist); 8. to take
pictures (the black
and white pictures of
the process are taken
regularly throughout
the experiment); 9. to
take time (it takes more
than 10 years to do
this).
Ex.
28. Give
Russian equivalents
of the
V-Adv. groups.
1.
All mistakes
in your
calculations will
be immediately
pointed out.
2. Every
new idea
is taken
up and
developed further.
3. It
is not
clear now
how a
solution to
the problem
can be
worked out.
4. It
is no
easy matter
to trace
back the
origin of
this conception.
5. Not
all measurements
and readings
push science
forward. 6.
The idea was
put forward
a
few
years
ago.
Ex.
29. Make
up English-Russian
pairs of
the word
groups equivalent
in meaning.
1.
At any
rate; 2.
at great
expense; 3.
at least;
4. at
once; 5.
as soon
as; 6.
at the
edge of;
7. by
no means;
8. from
now; 9.
in full;
10. in
general; 11.
in the
long run;
12. let
alone; 13.
not (no)
. .
. at
all; 14.
of necessity;
15. of
one's own;
16. on
the one
hand .
. .
on the
other hand;
17. some day;
18. that long.
1.
В конечном
счете (в
далеком будущем);
2. в
любом случае;
3. вообще;
4. как
только; 5.
когда-нибудь; 6.
на грани;
7. никоим
образом; 8. оставляя в стороне;
9. отныне, с данного момента;
10. полностью; И. по меньшей
мере; Г12. по необходимости;
13. с большими
затратами; 14. собственный;
15. совсем не;
16. с одной стороны. .
. с другой стороны; 17.
сразу;
18. так долго.
Ex.
30. Identify
the word
groups formed
according to
the following
patterns and give
their Russian
equivalents:
Pattern
A: N'
. .
. Prep.
. .
.N"
Note. N* belongs
to a
group of
abstract nouns
of the
type:
Under: discussion, consideration,
examination, study,
review, way,
etc.
I
n: use,
progress, question,
motion, demand,
etc.
Out
of: date,
reach, fashion,
phase, etc.
О
f: interest,
value, importance,
concern, use,
etc.
A
t: rest,
issue, stake,
etc.
Example: The
work
in progress
will hardly
produce immediate
practical results. "The work
in progress".
. .
Проводимая (ведущаяся)
работа. .
.
1.
The text
includes fragments
of the
opinions concerning
the subject
under discussion. 2.
Results of great significance
are very rare.
3. The problem
at issue - man and his
environment - concerns
everybody. 4. It
is rather difficult
to point out
all the defects
of the system
under investigation.
5. The book in question
was published
in 1967. ╖. The
portion of the particles
at rest is insignificant.
7. The discussion concerns problems
of common interest for most scientists.
Pattern
B: N'.
. .bef.
. .Prep.
. .
.N
Example:
Similar work
is in
progress in
many other
laboratories. "Work
is in
progress". .
. Работа
проводится. .
.
1.
At present a new
system is
under investigation.
2. It
is not
clear at
this point
if the
measurements are
of any
practical value.
3 The
concept was
in
use
in the
XIX century.
4 By
that time
the Prediction
will be of no interest
to anybody. 5. These
ideas are
absolutely out of date.
6. Everyone knows that
mathematicians are in great demand currently.
5.
REVISE IF
YOU FORGET
(to
be done
at home
in written
form)
Ex. 31. Read the text, concentrating on the "quantity" words. Pay attention to the difference in meaning due to the article used. Give Russian equivalents of the italicized words.
TO
SMOKE OR
NOT TO
SMOKE?
The
problem of
smoking is
much under
discussion. Some
people smoke,
some don't. At present
little is
known for
certain about
the tobacco effect on
the human
organism. The
amount of
nicotine absorbed
by a
heavy smoker
per day
is capable
of killing
a horse.
Yet it
does no
visible harm to the
smoker. At
least no
immediate harm. As to
long-range effects
much of what is attributed to tobacco can be
caused by different factors.
Quite a number
of studies are carried
on in order
to
establish cause-effect
relationship between smoking
and
some
dangerous diseases. The
number of theories advanced is increasing,
but the
many papers dealing with the
problem have to admit that
most
evidence is ambiguous and that there
is a little
confusion and a
lot
of
controversy concerning
the results obtained. However,
the little
evidence that is conclusive
makes
all
doctors say
that the practice
is harmful.
Most
of those
smoking wish
to give
it up,
and it
is a matter
of record
that a
great many
heavy smokers
often make
several attempts before they
give up.
. .
either smoking
or the
attempts. It
requires not
a little
will power and a
great deal
of determination. So
only
few succeed.
And those
few say that they have felt
so
much better ever since.
Ex.
32. A.
Fill in
the blanks
with it
or Us,
they or
their.
1....
follows that
mathematics
in
... pure
sense will
not enter
into this
frame, .
. .
object of
study being
not nature
itself. 2.
We
see
that astronomy
is still
at the
very opening
of ...
existence. 3.
Many seek
after knowledge
for .
. .
own sake.
4.
The
number of
elements which
make up
organic compounds
is quite restricted,
although the number of
combinations into which
. . . can enter is
great indeed. 5. In ...
deductions the authors
assumed
that the third-order elastic
constants
varied linearly with temperature.
В. Give Russian
equivalents
of
the italicized
words.
1.
When it
is said that a
man weighs
160 lbs
it means that he
is exerting
a force
of 160
lbs on
the floor.
2.
It
is likely
that the
reserves of
oil and
coal will
be exhausted
in less
than a
century. 3.
Lack of
figures may
make
it
difficult to
produce accurate
statistics. 4.
In any
case it
is not
difficult to
devise a
suitable computational scheme.
5.
We
found it more
convenient to
describe the structure
in terms of bond angles
and bond distances.
Ex.
33. Identify
the function
of one
and give
Russian equivalents
of the
italicized
words.
1.
Reading books
enlarges one's
horizons. 2.
It takes
one much
time and
effort to
carry out
calculation
of
this kind.
3. Your
definition is
somewhat different
from the
one mentioned
above. 4.
The choice
of the
critical concentration
is an
arbitrary one. 5. One
accepts standards which
are
specifically biological.
6. The
technique does
not allow
one to
isolate each
individual component.
7. One
cannot
be surprised if
one is not accustomed to the situation
which
is
nullified by the
surprise.
Ex.
34. Identify
the function
of this
(these) and
give Russian
equivalents
of
the italicized
words.
1.
These outstanding
discoveries were
made by
Russian scientists
at the
beginning of
this century.
2. Usually
a second
alloy-layer
appears
between the outer coating
and the
base metal/and
it is
probable that
this consists of different
compounds.
3.
Two basic
schemes of
replica are
possible, these
are
illustrated in Fig.
1. 4.
The definition does not make
any mention of the rates
of adsorption.
These
may be quite
different for
different materials.
5. I do not remember
who was the first
at
this laboratory to
use this term.
Ex.
35. Identify
the function
of that
(those) and
give Russian
equivalents
of
the italicized
words.
1.
It will
be better
to say
that fundamental
researches
is that
which may
have no
immediate practical
value. 2.
The task of
theory is to enable
one to
calculate the
result of an
experiment in
a shorter
time than
that required
to perform
the experiment.
4. Those
interested in
the
problem
are referred
to a
more recent
and complete
work by
Dr.N. 5. The experimental
results
indicated the presence
of some foreign species
and that
confirmed an
earlier idea concerning
the reaction mechanism.
Ex.
36. Substitute the proper
nouns for
the italicized
pronouns.
1.
Physicists may
also be
mentioned in
this connection
but without
distinguishing between
the practical and theoretical
ones.
2.
A great
deal of
attention has
been devoted
to problems
generated by
the "information
explosion" as
it has
been popularly
termed.
3.
One famous
question was
already raised:
that of the "mathematical
dream".
4. The
telescope admitted
a hundred
times as
much light
as
the unaided
human eye,
and according
to Galileo, it showed an
object at
fifty miles
as clearly
as if
it was
only five
miles away.
5.
The most
wonderful
instincts,
those
of the hive-bee
and of
the ant, cannot
be explained
in this
way.
6.
There
are
men
to
whom
nothing
seems
great
but
reason.
For
men
of this
class
it is a
cosmos
so
admirable that
to penetrate
to its ways seems
to them
the only
thing that
makes life
worth living.
7. Electrolysis
of sulfate
and
chloride
solution gave
about the
same type
of deposit.
This was
composed of
both the amorphous and
compact metal.
TEXT
STUDY
(to
be done
in class)
I. Read the introduction to yourself and state its topic (follow the guide words to the author's thought equivalent to однако, скорее, поэтому). Answer the questions: What is the main characteristic of the problems discussed in the four units of this book? Are the problems discussed in detail and covered in full?
[INTRODUCTION
In
the four
units, forming
this book
an attempt
is made
to keep
the discussion
within the
range of
problems of
common interest
for most
scientists whatever
their particular
fields. However,
it is
by no
means claimed
that the
items grouped
under the
same topic
deal with
the
problem
discussed in
sufficient detail,
let alone
cover it
in full.
Rather, it should be emphasized
that
the items include but
fragments of opinions
concerning the
subject under discussion
expressed by
outstanding
scientists on
different occasions. Therefore,
what is presented
here is,
of necessity, only part
of what was said elsewhere.
The
first
discussion
is focused
on the
relations
between
pure
and
applied
research,
theory
and
experiment,
science
and
technology,
scientist
and
layman.
The discussion is
opened by
the Soviet
physicist academician
Lev Artsimovitch
and concluded
by the
American physicist
prof. К.
К. Darrow.
It covers
the following
items:
A.
Science and
Technology. B.
What Science
Is. G. Research: Fundamental
and Applied,
and
the Public.
D. Scientific Innovation:
Its Impact
on Technology.
II.
Give
Russian
equivalents
of:
an
attempt
is
made;
what
is
presented
here
is.
.
.
only part
of
what
was-
said
elsewhere.
Text
A.
Science
and
Technology
(to
be
done
in
class
and
continued
at
home)
I.
Look
through
the
text
concentrating
on
the
beginning
of
each
paragraph
and
write
down
a
plan,
either
in
English
or
in
Russian
(time limit
- 10
min.).
1.
Science problems
can be
roughly classified
as analytic
and synthetic.
In analytic
problems we
seek the
principles of
the most
profound natural processes, the
scientist working
always at
the edge
of the
unknown. This
is the
situation today,
for instance,
within the
two extremes
of research
in
physics
- elementary
particle physics
and astrophysics -
both concerned
with
the properties of
matter, one
on the
smallest, the
other on
the grandest
scale. Research
objectives in
these fields
are determined
by the
internal
logic of the
development of
the field
itself. Revolutionary
shocks to
the foundations
of scientific
ideas can
be anticipated
from these
very areas.
2.
As to
synthetic problems,
they are
more often
studied because of
the possibilities
which they
hold for
practical applications,
immediate
and distant,
than because
their solution
is called
for by
the
logic
of science.
This kind
of motivation
strongly influences
the nature
of scientific
thinking and
the methods
employed in
solving problems.
Instead
of
the traditional
scientific
question:
"How
is
this to
be explained?"
the question
behind
the
research
becomes
"How
is
this
to
be
done?"
The
doing
involves
the
production
of
a
new
substance
or
a
new
process
with
certain
predetermined
characteristics.
In
many
areas
of
science,
the
division
between
science
and
technology
is
being
erased
and
the
chain
of
research
gradually
becomes the
sequence
of
technological
and
engineering
stages
involved in
working
out
a
problem.
3.
In
this
sense,
science
is
a
Janus-headed
figure.
On
the-
one hand,
it
is
pure
science,
striving
to
reach
the
essence
of
the
laws of
the
material
world.
On
the
other
hand,
it
is
the
basis
of
a
new technology,
the
workshop
of
bold
technical
ideas,
and
the
driving force
behind
continuous
technical
progress.
4.
In
popular
books
and
journals
we
often
read
that
science is
making
greater
strides
every
year,
that
in
various
fields
of
sci-
ence
discovery
is
followed
by
discovery
in
at
steady
stream
of
increasing
significance
and
that
one
daring
theory
opens
the
way
to
the
next.
Such
may
be
the
impression
with
research
becoming
a
collective
doing
and
scientific
data
exchange
a
much
faster
process.
Every
new
idea
should
immediately
be
taken
up
and
developed
further, forming
the
initial
point
of
an
avanlanche-like
process.
5.
Things
are,
in
fact,
much
more
complex
than
that.
Every year
scientists
are
faced
with
the
problems
of
working
through
thicker
and
tougher
material,
phenomena
at
or
near
the
surface having
long
been
explored,
researched,
and
understood.
The
new relations
that
we
study,
say,
in
the
world
of
elementary
particles at
dimensions
of
the
order
of
10
13
cm
or
in
the
world
of
superstellar
objects
at
distances
of
billions
of
light
years
from
us,
demand
extremely
intense
efforts
on
the
part
of
physicists
and
astrophysicists,
the
continuous
modernization
of
laboratories
with
experimental facilities
becoming
more
and
more
grandiose
and
costing
enormous sums.
Moreover,
it
should
be
stressed
that
scientific
equipment rapidly
becomes
obsolete.
Consequently,
the
pace
of
scientific
development
in
the
areas
of
greatest
theoretical
significance
is
drastically
limited
by
the
rate
of
building
new
research
facilities,
the
latter
depending
on
a
number
of
economic
and
technological
factors
not
directly
linked
to
the
aims
of
the
research.
It
may
take,
for example,
more
than
10
years
from
the
initial
decision
to
build a
100 - 200
billion
electron
volt
accelerator
to
its
completion.
It
should
be
borne
in
mind,
too,
that
few
measurements
and
readings
given
by
these
great
facilities
push
science
forward,
results
of
any great significance
being very
rare. For
instance, tens
of thousands
of pictures
taken during
the operation
of an
accelerator will
have to
be scrutinized
in
the
hope of
finding, among
typically trite
processes, signs of a new
interaction
or of a new event
whose presence or absence
may confirm
a theoretical idea.
II. Paragraph Study.
Read
paragraph.
1.
1.
Identify
the
topic
sentence
and
the
illustrating
sentences.
Find
the
sentence
containing
the
author's
prognosis
and
the
word
indicating
that
it
is a prognosis.
2. What
is meant
by the
situation and
these very
areas?
Read
paragraph 2.
1.
Identify the
topic sentence.
Answer the
questions: What
are the
two motive
forces behind
synthetic and
analytic research?
What are
the consequences arising from
the change
in motivation
for research?
What is
the present-day
relation between
science and
technology? What
is meant
by the
doing? 2.
Identify
two
sentences similar in meaning
in
paragraphs 1 and 2. 3.
Identify the words which
reveal
a comparison
in the
first sentence of paragraph
2. 4.
Translate
the last
sentence of the paragraph
into Russian.
Read
paragraph
3.
1.
Identify
the
topic
sentence
and
the
sentences
developing
its
idea.
2.
Give
Russian
equivalents
of
striving
to
reach
the
essence.
.
. and
the
workshop
of
bold
technical
ideas.
III.
Look
through
the
paragraphs
again
and
indicate
the
words
and
word
groups
used
to
connect
the
paragraphs
and
the
(sentences
within
them,
(to
be
continued
at
home
in
written
form)
I.
1. Read
the text
again without
consulting the
dictionary. Identify
7 structures
according to
pattern 12
and give
Russian equivalents
of the relevant part
of the
sentence, paying special
attention to
the choice
of Russian
conjunctions.
II.
Paragraph Study
(consult the
dictionary if
necessary).
Read
paragraph 4.
1.
Follow the
word science
through the
paragraph and
copy out
the words
related to
it in
meaning. State
the main
idea of
the paragraph
(in English
or in
Russian). 2.
Copy out
the sentence
summed up
by the
word impression.
3. Copy
out the
words equivalent
to: непрерывный
поток, дерзкая
теория, лавинообразный.
Read
paragraph 5.
1.
Divide the
paragraph into
three parts
with the
following titles:
Subject of
Research, Tools
of Research
and Results
of Research.
Indicate the beginning of
each part.
2. Read
the first
sentence again
and copy
out the
words indicating
that the
popular view
on science
is not
adequate.
III.
Translate paragraph
5 into
Russian.
Text
B. What
Science Is
(to
be done
in class)
I.
See if
you remember:
to meet
human needs;
to refer
to; to
distinguish;
to
encounter
difficulties;
to emerge;
at great
expense; search for truth;
to point
out.
II.
Look through
the text
concentrating
on
the beginning
and the
end of
each
paragraph,
and
write
an outline,
either
in
Russian
or
in English
(time limit
-
10
min.).
1.
It
can
be
said
that
science
is
a
cumulative body
of
knowledge
about
the
natural
world,
obtained
by
the
application
of
a
peculiar method practised
by the
scientist. It
is known
that the
word science
itself is
derived from
the Latin
"scire", to
know, to" have
knowledge of, to experience.
Fundamental and applied
sciences are commonly distinguished,
the former being concerned with
fundamental laws of nature,
the latter engaged
in application of the knowledge
obtained. Technology is the fruit
of applied science, being
the concrete practical expression
of research
done
in the laboratory
and applied to manufacturing
commodities
to meet human needs.
2.
The
word
"scientist"
was
introduced
only
in
1840
by
a
Cambridge
professor
of
philosophy
who
wrote:
"We
need
a
name
for
describing
a
cultivator
of
science
in
general.
I
should
be
inclined
to
call
him
a
scientist".
"The
cultivators
of
science"
before
that
time
were
known
as
"natural
philosophers".
They
were
curious,
often
eccentric,
persons
who
poked
inquiring
fingers
at
nature.
In
the
process
of
doing so
they
started
a
technique
of
inquiry
which is now
referred
to
as
the "scientific
method".
3.
Briefly,
the following
steps
can
be
distinguished
in
this
method.
First
comes
the
thought
that initiates
the
inquiry.
It
is
known,
for
example,
that
in
1896
the
physicist Henri
Becquerel,
in
his
communication
to
the
French
Academy of
Sciences,
reported
that he
had
discovered
rays
of an
unknown nature
emitted
spontaneously
by
uranium
salts. His
discovery
excited Marie
Curie, and
together
with
her husband
Pierre Curie she tried to
obtain more knowledge
about
the
radiation.
What
was
it
exactly?
Where
did
it
come
from?
4.
Second
comes the
collecting
of
facts:
the
techniques
of
doing
this
will
differ
according
to
the
problem
which
is
to
be
solved.
But
it
is
based
on
the
experiment
in
which
anything
may
be
used to
gather
the
essential
data
-
from
a
test-tube
to
an
earth-satellite. It
is
known
that
the
Curies
encountered
great
difficulties
in
gathering
their
facts,
as
they
investigated
the
mysterious
uranium
rays.
5.
This
leads
to
step
three:
organizing
the
facts
and
studying the relationships that
emerge.
It
was
already
noted
that
the
above
rays
were
different
from
anything
known.
How
to
explain
this? Did
this
radiation
come
from
the
atom
itself?
It
might
be
expected that
other
materials
also
have
the
property
of
emitting
radiation. Some
investigations
made
by
Mme
Curie
proved
that
this
was
so. The
discovery
was
followed
by
further
experiments
with
"active"
radioelements
only.
6. Step four
consists in stating an hypothesis or theory: that is, framing a general truth
that has emerged, and that may be modified
as new facts emerge. In July 1898, the Curies announced the probable presence
in pitchblende ores of a new element possessing powerful radioactivity. This
was the beginning of the discovery of radium.
7. Then follows the clearer statement of the theory. In December
1898, the Curies reported to the Academy of Sciences: "The various
reasons enumerated lead us to believe that the new radioactive substance
contains a new element to which we propose to give the name
of Radium. The new radioactive substance certainly contains a great
amount of barium, and still its radioactivity is considerable. It
can be suggested therefore that the radioactivity of radium must
be enormous".
8. And the final step is the practical test of the theory, i. e. the
prediction of new facts. This is essential, because from this flows
the possibility of control by man of the forces of nature that are
newly revealed.
9. Note should be taken of how Marie Curie used deductive reasoning
in order to proceed with her research, this kind of "detective
work" being basic to the methodology of science. It should be stressed
further that she dealt with probability - and not with certainty - in her
investigation. Also, although the Curies were doing
the basic research work at great expense to themselves in hard physical
toil, they knew that they were part of an international group
of people all concerned with their search for truth. Their reports
were published and immediately examined by scientists all over
the world. Any defects in their arguments would be pointed out
to them immediately.
III. Paragraph Study.
Read paragraph 1.
1. Follow the dominant noun and the words related to it in meaning
through the paragraph and state the main idea. 2. Give Russian equivalents
of:
a cumulative body of knowledge, a peculiar method practised by
the scientist, manufacturing commodities to meet human needs.
Read paragraph 2.
1. Follow the dominant noun and its equivalents through the paragraph.
Identify the sentence which repeats the idea expressed in the first
sentence of the text. 2. Identify the words used by the author as equivalent
to:
направляли свой пытливый ум на. . . 3. Identify the words used by
the author as equivalent to doing so, a technique of inquiry.
Read paragraph 3.
1. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Among
the latter identify the dominant noun and follow it through its transformations
into its equivalents and pronouns. 2. Give a Russian equivalent of
initiates.
Read paragraph 4.
1. Identify the topic sentence. Follow the words the collecting of
facts through their transformations into their equivalents and pronouns.
2.
Identify the words equivalent to: столкнуться с трудностями, пробирка,
в зависимости
от проблемы.
Read paragraph 5.
1. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Find
the sentence describing the first step on the way to a hypothesis
(What
modal verb is used to show that it is only the first step?). 2. Identify
the
words used by the author as equivalent to this was so. 3. Give a Russian
equivalent of emerge. Translate the last sentence of the paragraph
into Russian.
Read paragraph 6.
1. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Find
the sentence describing the next step in the development of the hypothesis
(What word shows that it is a hypothesis?). State the function of that is and give its Russian equivalent.
2. Translate the first sentence
into
Russian.
Read paragraphs 7 and 8.
1. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Find
the sentence describing the final step in the development of the hypothesis.
2. Find the guide words to the author's thought equivalent to: несомненно,
несмотря на это, на этом основании. 3. Try to explain the author's
choice
of the modal verbs. 4. Find the English equivalent of i. e. in paragraph
6.
Read paragraph 9.
1. State the role of deductive reasoning in science. Indicate the words
characterizing the conditions under which the Curies worked. 2. Translate
paragraph 9 into Russian.
IV. Read the whole text again and see if any corrections should be
made in your original outline. Write an abstract of the text in three
sentences.
Text C. Research: Fundamental and Applied, and the Public
(to be done at home in written form)
I. 1. Read the text without consulting the dictionary, pencil-mark
the words that you do not understand. Divide the text into three
parts, copy
out the dominant noun in eacb part and suggest a title for each
part. 2. Identify 19 structures according to Pattern 9 and give
their Russian
equivalents.
1. People are always talking about fundamental research, implying
thereby the existence of a nameless opposite. A good definition
of fundamental
research will certainly be welcomed: let us see whether we can
invent one. We have to begin, of course, by defining research.
Unfortunately
the concept
of research contains a negative element. Research is searching
without knowing what you are going to find: if you know what you
are going
to find you have already found it, and your activity is not research.
Now,
since
the outcome
of your research is unknown, how can you know whether it will be
fundamental or not?
2. We may say for instance that fundamental research is that
which you undertake without caring whether the results will be
of
practical value or not. It may not be reasonable to go further
and
say that fundamental research is that which will be abandoned as
soon
as it shows a sign of leading to results of practical value. By
saying
this you may limit your own achievement. It will be better to say
that fundamental research is that which may have no immediate
practical value, but can be counted upon as leading to practical
value sooner or later. The extension of knowledge and understanding
of the world around us will always be profitable in the long run,
if not in the short.
3. This is a very powerful argument for fundamental research
and it is a completely unassailable one, and yet there are people
who will not like it. Let us seek a definition that will give fundamental
research a value of its own, not dependent upon other uses appearing
soon or late. We say for instance that fundamental research
is that which extends the theory. Now we have to theorize upon
theory.
4. There have been several viewpoints about theory. One is that
theory discerns the underlying simplicity of the universe. The
nontheorist sees a confused mass of phenomena; when he becomes
a theorist they fuse into a simple and dignified structure. But some
contemporary theories are so intricate that an increasing number
of people prefer dealing with the confusion of the phenomena than
with the confusion of theory.
5. A different idea suggests that theory enables one to calculate
the result of an experiment in a shorter time than it takes to
perform the experiment. I do not think that the definition is very
pleasing to the theorists, for some problems are obviously solved
more
quickly by experimentors than by theorists.
6. Another viewpoint is that theory serves to suggest new experiments.
This is sound, but it makes the theorist the handman of the
experimentor, and he may not like this auxiliary role. Still another
viewpoint is that theory serves to discourage the waste of time
on making useless experiments.
7. Let us try to flatter theory by giving it a definition that
shall
not describe it as a mere handmaid of experiment or a mere device
for saving time. I suggest that theory is an intellectual instrument
granting a deep and indescribable contentment to its designer and
to its users. This instrument is made up of units which can be
compared, for instance, to different branches of physics: solid
state physics, relativity, acoustics, elementary particles and others,
which
sometimes have only a remote relation with one another and
may not even be interconnected at all.
8. The rest of my talk will be devoted to a different question
which
is: how are we going to communicate to the layman some of our passion
for our science? This is a very important question, for everyone
is a layman until he becomes a scientist. If we can solve the problem
of interesting the layman we may succeed in attracting the potential
Fermis, Slaters, Lands and Fletchers of future into the field of, say,
physics. Nothing
could be more desirable.
9. A frequent technique is that of surprise. The trouble with
this
is that one cannot be surprised if one is not accustomed to the
situation which is nullified by the surprise. Imagine, for example,
a physicist trying to surprise an audience of laymen by telling
them that
there are a dozen elementary particles instead of two or three,
or that
the newest cyclotron imparts an energy of 500 mev to protons.
It simply will not work, because the listeners will have no background
to compare this information with.
10. It is also a mistake to think that we can excite an audience
by solving a mystery for them. The trouble here is that practically
no one is interested in the answer to a question which he never
thought
of asking.
11. Relativity had a wonderful build-up in the decade before
1905, for the physicists of that era were acquainted with the sequence
of experiments which were designed to show that the earth moves
relatively to the ether and which obstinately showed the opposite.
Each stage in the unfolding of quantum mechanics was exciting
to the physicists who knew the earlier stages, because they knew
the problems which were left unsolved. The writer of a detective
story creates the mystery before he solves it; but the mystery
usually
begins with the discovery of a murdered man, and this is considerably
more exciting than a murdered theory. The corresponding
technique in physics consists in trying to create a particular
state of
out-of-dateness in the mind of the public, in the expectation of
bringing them up-to-date at the end of the lecture or paper. There
is too
much risk of leaving the audience in the out-of-date condition,
and
this technique cannot be recommended.
12. Another mistake, in my opinion at least, is that of stressing
a paradox. Try telling an audience that if you know the exact po-
sition of a particle you cannot know its momentum, and vice versa
-
the effect is unpredictable but obviously not what you wanted.
Still another mistake is that of springing an isolated fact upon
the
audience. An isolated fact is not science and it is not interesting.
Facts are of interest only as parts of a system. And we must strive
to interest the layman in the system.
II. Paragraph Study
(consult the dictionary if necessary).
Read
paragraphs 1-3.
1. Follow the nouns research, definition and argument through their
transformations into pronouns and state the main idea of the
paragraphs, either in English
or in Russian. 2. Copy out the words equivalent to: весьма
желательно иметь хорошее определение; предпринять, не задумываясь;
ограничить
возможные результаты своей деятельности; расширение знаний
приносит пользу. 3.
Give Russian equivalents of a nameless opposite; searching;
outcome of your
research; immediate practical value; research can be counted
upon as leading; in the long run, if not in the short; a very powerful
argument
for.
Read paragraphs 4 - 7.
1. Follow the dominant noun through the paragraphs and copy
out the definitions of theory and the beginning of the sentences
containing counter arguments.
2. Copy out the words equivalent to: образуют простую,
но строгую сbстему; теории имеют настолько сложный и запутанный
характер;
вспомогательная
функция; предотвращать потерю времени; приносящий глубокое
удовлетворение.
3. Give Russian equivalents of the underlying simplicity; the
handman of the experimenter; a device for saving time; a remote
relation.
Read paragraphs 8 - 12.
1. Concentrate on the opening question and the possible answers
considered by the author. Make up a summary of the paragraphs
in three sentences
in Russian.
III.
Translate paragraphs 8 - 12 into Russian.
IV. Make up a list of words that you have looked up in the
dictionary
and give their contextual Russian equivalents.
Text D. Scientific Innovation: Its Impact on Technology
(to be done in class)
1.
Mr. A. The impact of scientific activity on technology is often
discussed today. But one thing is not clear. What is meant
here:
the impact of today's scientific activity on today's
technology or the
impact of today's scientific developments on technology
thirty
years from now?
2. Mr. B. I think there is usually an interval of twenty
years
or so between the discovery of a new scientific principle
and its
impact on industry. In the case of the transister, for
example, it took
about that long. Some things move a bit faster but it
must be admitted that many are even slower.
3. For example, our computers are based on fundamental
discoveries in physics that may be traced back thirty,
forty, even fifty
years. What will come out of contemporary science, out
of the research that is being done today - we just do
not know.
4. Mr. A. Do you think the isolated inventor is still
the usual
source of innovation, or has the group inventor been
put to the fore
now?
Mr. B. It seems that the lone inventor in most fields
has been replaced by the group. But more often than we
realize
the original
brilliant
idea is still the product of one man's genius. He may,
however, live in a
group environment and have the advantage of the scientific
and technical competence
and intellectual contacts that come from working with
a large group of people.
5. Mr. A. You are probably right. But as soon as a new
idea
is put forward, it requires many people's efforts before
it can be transformed into a product. And at this stage
innovation becomes a group
and not an individual activity, involving both a sophisticated
body
of information and a sophisticated technology.
Таре 1. I. Listen to the following words and expressions:
1. scientific innovation - новое в науке; 2. impact -
влияние; 3. what is meant
- что имеется в виду.
П. Listen to the words and expressions again and repeat
them after the speaker. Write them down.
III. Listen to passage 1 and answer the questions:
1. What is often discussed to-day? (Key: the impact of
scientific activity on technology.) 2. What words are
equivalent to
scientific innovation?
(Key: scientific developments.)
IV. Listen to the passage, sentence by sentence, and
repeat them after
the speaker.
Tape 2. I. Listen to the following expressions:
I. It took about that long - потребовалось примерно
столько же времени; 2. it must be admitted - нужно признать;
3. a bit faster - немного
быстрее.
II. Listen to the expressions again and repeat them after
the speaker.
Write them down.
III. Listen to passage 2 and answer the questions:
1. What is the usual interval between the discovery of
a new scientific principle and its impact on industry?
(Key:
an interval
of twenty
years or so). 2. What example is given to illustrate
the above statement? (Key: In the case of the transistor,
for
example,
it took about that
long.)
3. What period of time is meant by it took about that
long? (Key: an
interval
of twenty years or so.)
IV. Listen to the passage, sentence by sentence, and
repeat them after
the speaker.
Tape 3. I. Listen to the following words and expressions:
I. to trace back - прослеживать; 2. contemporary - современный.
II. Listen to the words and expressions again and repeat
them after the
speaker. Write them down.
III. Listen to passage 3 and answer the questions:
1. What are computers based on? (Key: on fundamental
discoveries in physics.) 2. Do we know what will come
out of contemporary
science? (Key: we just
do not know.) 3. How far back were fundamental discoveries
in physics made? (Key: thirty, forty, even fifty years.)
IV. Listen to the text, sentence by sentence, and repeat
them after the
speaker.
Tape 4. I. Listen to the following words and expressions:
I. inventor - изобретатель; 2. source - источник; 3.
to put to the fore -
выдвигать на первый план; 4. genius - гений; 5. environment
- окружающая среда; 6. to have the advantage - пользоваться
преимуществом.
II. Listen to the words and expressions again and repeat
them after the
speaker. Write them down.
III. Listen to passage 4 and answer the questions:
1. What kind of inventors are discussed in the text?
(Key: the isolated inventor and the group inventor.)
2. What
words are
equivalent to
theisolated inventor? (Key: the lone
inventor.) 3. Is the author sure that the lone inventor
has been
replaced by the group? Give your reason. (Key: No,
he is not; he says, "it seems. . .") 4. What
is the potential role of the lone inventor? (Key: The
original brilliant
idea is still the product of
one man's genius.)
IV. Listen to the text, sentence by sentence, and repeat
them after the
speaker.
Tape 5. I. Listen to the following words and expressions:
I. to put forward an idea - выдвигать идею; 2. to require
- требовать;
3. effort - усилие; 4. sophisticated technology - высокоразвитая,
сложная
техника.
II. Listen to the words and expressions again and repeat
them after the
speaker. Write them down.
III. Listen to passage 5 and answer the questions:
1. When does science become a group and not an individual
activity? (Key: as soon as a new idea is put forward.)
2. What is the
Russian equivalent
of a sophisticated body of information1} (Key: всеобъемлющая
информация.)
IV. Listen to the passage, sentence by sentence, and
repeat them after
the speaker.
Laboratory Work
it down, band it over to the teacher for Listen to the dialogue, write checking up, learn it by heart.