ОСНОВНЫЕ ТРУДНОСТИ СИНТАКСИСА

1. ПЕРЕВОД ПРИДАТОЧНЫХ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЙ
В ФУНКЦИИ РАЗЛИЧНЫХ ЧЛЕНОВ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ

     Предложения-подлежащие.

     Придаточные предложения-подлежащие вводятся следующими союзными словами:
изъяснительными союзами that, whether, if; местоимениями who, what, which (whoever, whatever, whichever);
местоименными наречиями where, when, why, how.
     При переводе предложений-подлежащих в русском предложении перед соответствующим союзным словом необходимо ставить соотносительное слово "то (тот, та, те)". Перевод следует начинать со сказуемого; например
:
                                           That the author shares this view                                       is quite obvious,
                                                          подлежащее                                                                 сказуемое
                              To, что автор разделяет эту точку зрения,                    - вполне очевидно.

Примечание 1. Если предложение начинается со слов if, whether, то перевод следует начинать со сказуемого внутри предложения-подлежащего с добавлением к нему частицы "ли":              Whether the author shares this view is not quite clear.
                                                                                      Разделяет ли автор эту точку зрения - не вполне ясно.

      Союзные слова, употребляемые в предложении-подлежащем, переводятся следующим образом:

that                         - то, что;
what                       - то, что;
if, whether              - как частица "ли" после сказуемого в предложении-подлежащем;
who                        - кто; тот, кто;
which                      - кто из; который из. . .;
whatever                - все, что; что бы ни. . .;
where                     - то, где; вопрос о том, где. . .;
when                       - то, когда; вопрос о том, когда. . .;
why                         - то, почему; вопрос о том, почему. . .;
how                         - то, как; вопрос о том, как. . .;

how + прилагательное -- насколько + прилагательное; например:

How difficult it was to accomplish this work is seen from his diary.
Насколько трудно было выполнить эту работу, видно из его дневника.

Примечание 2. Если сказуемое главного предложения выражено формой страдательного залога рт глагола, принимающего предложное дополнение в русском языке, то перед придаточным подлежащим ставится предлог:

That these tribes knew how to use fire is shown by a few surviving pictures.
На то, что эти племена знали, как пользоваться огнем, указывают несколько сохранившихся рисунков

Упражнение.

Найдите сказуемое в главном предложении. Переведите предложения.

1. That ancient Egyptian history can be written with even its present approach of accuracy is one of the wonders of scholarship.
2. That this development was a comparatively late one in Cantonese dialect is shown by several facts.
3. How this occured can be seen from the following example.
4. But what seems to us today to be a hackneyed truth was by no means trivial and commonplace four centuries ago.
5. What interests primitive man is not nature in itself but nature so far as 2 it intervenes in human life and forms a necessary and obvious basis for it.
6. That this environment should and does affect man in a great variety of ways seems so obvious as hardly to admit of discussion.
7. What Marx and Engels considered to be true of historical changes they also considered to be true of aesthetic creation.
8. That the Inca had made important advances in literary form is suggested by a few surviving fragments.
9. There is a great deal of difference between languages in respect to 3 the word classes that are used to express certain ideas, for so often what is a noun in Greek must be rendered as a verb in other languages, and what is a pronoun in Greek, or Hebrew frequently must become a noun in another language.
10. That there are communities in Europe whose language places them quite apart is, of course, everyday knowledge. As I have said, the Basques are such a people, the Hungarians and Finns are others.
11. What is significant in this philosophy, and what made it wield a great influence in some oriental countries, is its view of history.
12. The essence of a compound word is that it shall symbolyze a single thing or idea. Whether it is spelt as one Word, or hyphened, or spelt as two words, makes no difference.

Предложения-сказуемые.

      Предложения в функции именной части сказуемого могут вводиться теми же союзными словами и местоимениями, что и предложения-подлежащие. При переводе особое внимание следует обращать на правильный перевод глагола-связки to be.
     Рекомендуются следующие способы перевода глагола-связки to be в подобных конструкциях:
состоит в том, что . . .; представляет собой то, что . . .; является тем, что . . .; это то, что . . ., so far as -- постольку, поскольку, in respect to -- в отношении.

Упражнение

Переведите.

1. My book was what is often referred to as an autobiographical novel.
2. What seemed most strange in the Battle of Plassey was that the Navab's immense army should have been defeated by so small a force, and that the victory of the English side should have been so decisive.
3. What I mean here is that every one of these factors is liable to mislead.
4. For the last two hundred years Yedo (4) has been to Japan for (5) literature what London is to the United Kingdom or Paris to Europe.

(4)Yedo -- старое название Токио,
(5) for -- здесь: в отношении.

Предложения -дополнения.

     Придаточные предложения-дополнения вводятся теми же союзными словами и местоимениями, что и предложения-подлежащие (см. выше), например - предложение -- прямое дополнение:

Не confirmed what we already knew.
Он подтвердил то, что мы уже знали.

предложение -- предложное дополнение

Archeological excavations give us a better idea of how the people of those days lived.
Археологические раскопки дают нам более правильное представление о том, как жили люди в те времена.

Упражнение

Переведите.

1. These distinctive features of labour explain why labour necessarily gives rise to speech and thought and cannot develop without the aid of speech and thought.
2. Those who have studied the way of life and the language of wild tribes have often pointed out to what an incredible degree these are split up. This holds(6) especially of the hotter countries.
3. Aristotle took over much that had been expressed by Plato and indeed is so dependent upon his teacher that some historians still dispute how far he departed from his doctrines.
4. The syllables contain consonants and vowels bearing certain qualitative and quantitative relations to one another; and also differ in that some are accented, and some are not, the accents themselves being of various degrees of strength.
5. The semantic difficulties of our topic are troublesome, and no ready relief seems possible beyond constant vigilant attention to how terms are used in their contexts, especially to their polar oppositions.
6. In the Middle Ages Rhetoric corresponded roughly to what we understand by the study of Latin literature.
7 We discovered in a cave turtle-shell ornaments that confirmed what we had been told about them.
8. From what you have read in this book, you have become acquainted with the state in which the Saxons were living, when the Normans arrived.
9. It is perhaps idle now to speculate on who or what this man was: though such speculations have always teased people's imagination.
10. The story of who the modern English originally were can be conveniently divided into three parts.
11. It is evident from a couple of references in "Beowulf" that our forebears knew the story of how the giants had attacked the gods and how they had been repaid for their temerity by being overwhelmed in a universal flood.
12. We cannot tell whether the Emperor Michael knew of the Pope's intention and whether he would have welcomed it.

(6) this holds , . . of -- это справедливо в отношении


Предложения-обстоятельства.

      Придаточное предложение-обстоятельство (места и времени) вводится союзами where, when и отвечает на вопросы "когда?", "в каких случаях?", "где?". Слово where в таком случае (и в отличие от where в предложении-подлежащем) переводится "там, где. . .", "в тех случаях, когда . . .":

Where the sentences are separated by a comma . . .
(Там где) В тех случаях, когда предложения разделяются запятой. . .

Придаточные предложения-обстоятельства могут также вводиться союзами whenever, wherever.

Упражнение

Переведите.

1. Where the related languages do not agree, some or all of them must have made some change.
2. Where scholars diverge seriously in the views it is usually unsafe to follow any one interpretation.
3. Where there are not enough letters for an adequate representation of phoneme facts, the language has recourse to other devices.
4. Where it is known that a number of languages have all descended from a common ancestor, it is of course much preferable to group them according to the families they form.

Предложения-определения.

     Придаточные предложения-определения вводятся словами why и that, которые стоят после определяемого существительного:

The reason why he has not come is not clear to me.
Причина (какая?) того, почему он не пришел, -- не ясна для меня.

2. СЛОВА-ЗАМЕСТИТЕЛИ

Заместители существительного.

     Заместители существительного употребляются в предложении во избежание повторения уже названного существительного. Они согласуются в числе с существительным, которое заменяют, и могут иметь перед собой предлог. Местоимение that, those употребляется без артикля, местоимение one, ones может иметь перед собой определенный артикль. При переводе на русский язык существительное повторяется:

His handwriting resembles that of his father.
Его почерк похож на почерк его отца.

В том случае если после слова-заместителя идет определительное придаточное предложение, возможен перевод "тот, который":

This system of writing is quite different from the one described in the book.
Эта система письма совсем иная, чем та, которая (система, которая) описана в книге.


Упражнение

Найдите слова-заместители существительного. Переведите предложения.

1. In reading Shakespeare's works, one finds many common everyday words that are used with meanings quite different from those they have today.
2. The phonology of Korean is similar to that of both Japanese and Chinese, perhaps slightly favouring the latter.
3. Amber finds from North-Russian neolithic sites, in addition to those already mentioned in literature, are known at any rate from the dwelling places on the lake of Rostov.
4. I have pointed out that the language used by the child is determined far more by that of its playfellows than by that of its parents.
5. Aymara (7) is generally termed the "older" language, that is, that of wider extent in pre-Inca days, and one that has yielded ground to the Quecchua.7
6. The Ainus (8) live in conditions somewhat similar to those of the Indians of the United States in certain areas of the Japanese islands, and are evidently the remnant of the people who inhabited the island empire before the Japanese came.
7. Hebrew has apparently successfully revived in Israel though Israeli Hebrew, too, is something quite different from that spoken in ancient times.
8. This sonnet and the one quoted above need, in fact, to be considered together.
9. Of course, the hieroglyphic writing had a stock of thousands of characters, and might well have included the ones we are looking for in texts which have disappeared or not yet been discovered.
10. Like that of Aztec, the bibliography of Quecchua is very large both early and recent. The best grammar seems to be that of Middendorf.
11. The later culture layer is poorer in forms and is more monotonous than the older one: many of the older types of harpoons and arrows are missing.
12. The skeletons were found in the trunk of a great tree. That of King Arthur was of a very large man, and Queen Guinevere was shrouded by her long golden hair.

(7) Aymara, Quecchua -- названия индейских наречий.
(8) Ainus -- небольшая часть населения Японии, неродственная японцам.

Заместители прилагательного.

      Повторяющееся прилагательное может заменяться словом so. При переводе на русский язык прилагательное следует повторять, либо не переводить слово so:

The first chapter was very difficult, the second one less so.
Первая глава была очень трудная, вторая - менее (трудная).

Упражнение

Найдите прилагательные, которые заменяются словом so. Переведите предложения.

1. This list was criticized on various grounds, some quite legitimate, others less so.
2. The style of this novel is not more ornate than that, let us say, of Robinson Crusoe, and incomparably less so than that of many Japanese books of later date.
3. Of the criticism which appeared in the eighteen major reviews in England, nine were favourable, some very much so, three were lukewarm, but more favourable than hostile.

Заместители глагола.

     Для того чтобы избежать повторения, смысловой глагол может заменяться глаголом to do в соответствующем времени, лице и числе. Перед заместителем глагола могут стоять слова as -- как -- или than -- чем, нежели, -- а также nor -- а также . . . не -- или so -- также, такой же, -- требующие эмфатической инверсии сказуемого.
     При переводе глагола to do на русский язык необходимо учитывать следующее.
     Если время смыслового глагола и глагола-заместителя совпадает, то последний можно не переводить:

Не stayed there much longer than he usually did.
Он оставался там значительно дольше, чем обычно (чем он обычно это делал).

     Если время смыслового глагола и глагола-заместителя не совпадает, то глагол-заместитель следует переводить на русский язык смысловым глаголом в том времени, в котором он употреблен:

Не stayed there much longer than he usually does.
Он оставался там значительно дольше, чем остается обычно (чем он обычно это делает).

Во избежание повторения сложной формы смыслового глагола обычно повторяется лишь первая часть всей формы и тем самым служит ее заместителем:

Today he is reading better than he was yesterday.
Сегодня он читает лучше чем (он читал) вчера.


Упражнение.

Переведите.

1."The eagle sees much further than man, but the human eye sees considerably more in things than does the eye of the eagle", wrote Engels.
2. We know much more about Giovanni Pisano 9 than we do about his anonymous contemporaries who were at work on the Gothic cathedrals in France.
3. The typological classification of languages is not necessarily preferable to the genetic classification, nor does it supplant the genetic (as the latter does geographic).
4. There is a super-refined Oxford accent which produces as artificial an effect, in its own way, as does the pronunciation of some of the American stage stars.
5. Jones' surmise that the Germanic languages were related to Latin, Greek and Sanscrit, at once proved true, as did later his surmise about Celtic.
6. The Chinese cannot properly be said to have an alphabet, since the characters used in writing do not represent sounds as do the letters of the alphabets that have been described.
7. The Roman baths (Bath) are the only hot springs in England. The Rump Room was ruined by the blitz during the war as were the Assembly Rooms.

8 Pisano -- Джованни Пизано (1240--1328), скульптор и архитектор.

3. ОСОБЕННОСТИ ПЕРЕВОДА НЕКОТОРЫХ СОЮЗОВ И ПРЕДЛОГОВ

Which в значении "что".
    Относительное местоимение which может относиться не к одному существительному в предшествующем предложении, а ко всему предложению в целом. В таком случае предложение, начинающееся с which, отделяется запятой. Само местоимение which переводится словом "что"; например:

The trees round the house are very tall, which makes the room dark.
Деревья вокруг дома очень высокие, что затемняет комнату.

Упражнение

Определите значение which в каждом случае. Переведите предложения.

1. Later Robert, Earl of Leichester married the countess of Essex, which he also kept secret.
2. The words in Japanese are regularly more than one syllable, and the roots appear to be modified by affixes which, however, are treated as separate words, yet are not really independent.
3. Lydgate is a really complete portrait of a man, which seems to us high praise.
4. The fish, he thinks, were eaten raw, which, to some extent, still is the custom of the Aleuts.

Двойные союзы the . . . the

     Перевод двойных союзов the. . . the -- чем . . . тем -- может представлять трудность потому, что по внешнему виду они совпадают с определенным артиклем the и могут довольно далеко отстоять один от другого. Отличительный признак конструкции в том, что за союзами следуют прилагательные или наречия в сравнительной степени, причем обе части предложения разделяются запятой.

The more we read, the better we know the language.
Чем больше мы читаем, тем лучше мы знаем язык.

Иногда во второй части конструкции употребляется инверсия сказуемого:

The longer I looked at the picture the more did it appeal to me.
Чем дольше я смотрел на картину, тем больше она привлекала меня.

Возможно также отсутствие сказуемого в обеих частях конструкции или во второй ее части:

The nearer the winter the shorter the days.
Чем ближе зима, тем короче дни.

Упражнение

Найдите двойные союзы the . . . the и относящиеся к ним прилагательные в сравнительной степени. Переведите предложения.

1. The less frequently a word is used, the smaller the need for reducing its length.
2. The more we read Shakespeare the more do we desire to read him, and the more do we unconsciously regard his work as the standard of all poetry.
3. Engels wrote: ". . . The further men become removed from the animals, however, the more their effect on nature assumes the character of a premeditated, planned action, directed towards definite ends known in advance . .".
4. The more precise we wish the analysis of frequency to be, the longer must be the duration of the tone to enable it to be determined.
5. The further we go back into the earlier stages of Chinese, the easier it is to gather instances of interchange of function between these two parts of speech.

Употребление двух разных предлогов к одному существительному одновременно.

      В том случае если два разных предлога одновременно относятся к одному существительному, части предложения, содержащие предлоги, разделяются запятой. (Эти части предложения всегда представляют собой однородные члены предложения). Кроме того, предлог отделяется запятой от существительного, к которому относится. Такая необычная пунктуация затрудняет перевод подобных конструкций. Например:

After a second journey to, and stay in, France he returned to England once again in 1793.

     При переводе следует каждый предлог присоединять к существительному порознь, так что иногда существительное может быть повторено (или вместо него употреблено местоимение или наречие):

После второй поездки во Францию и пребывания там (во Франции) он снова вернулся в Англию в 1793 году.


Упражнение

Переведите.

1. The prose of the 19th century is, apart from fiction, mainly concerned with, and achieved its greatest success in, history and criticism.
2. Soviet literature is at once a chronicler of, and an active participant in, life. The 1917 Revolution wrought great changes in the minds and hearts of Russian men of letters.
3. The consciousness of their (Anglo-Saxons') origin •from and their strong links with the North-West Europeans (Germanic tribes) continued long in the new land.
4. His style is good, resembling that of More; his constructions are occasionally cumbrous, and he sometimes overdoes the references to, and illustrations from, Latin and Greek history.

Повторение трудностей синтаксиса

     Переведите.

1. What the author really meant, and what he showed in his own work, was something quite different from what he actually stated.
2. The number of possible sounds (in a language) runs into the hundreds, and probably, the thousands. No one language uses more than a small fraction of all these possible sounds, usually - no fewer than twenty and no more than sixty. Even where two languages use what seems to be the same sound, there are almost always small differences that a trained ear can catch.
3. Whatever subject comedy dealt with, its purpose was to expose and ridicule the follies and vices of what Johnson (10) called real men. That this was the end (11) of Johnson's comedies is made very clear throughout his work.
4. The vegetation of Japan is luxurious and as much of the land as is tillable responds splendidly to the efforts of the farmers.
5. As interesting as Inge's l2 ideas and comments were, what he was as a human being was even more fascinating.
6. We investigate where interest compels us to search, in the near decades of our youth, or among the inscrutable stone images of vanished races. The subject and the epoch of our labour are subjective choices, and all we shall find is how they appear to us.
7. That translation as an interpretive art is a self- evident truth. Yet it is a paradox peculiar to the translator that he is the only interpretive artist working in a medium which is both identical with, and different from, that of the original he sets out to render in his own terms.
8. What Greece and Rome have been to Europe, China has been to the nations of the Far East.
9. Whether they were direct ancestors or not, the Australopithecine and other fossils at least show us that manlike animals could make and use tools before they reached the brain capacity of Modern Man.
10. What we are interested in is whether there is a linkage, in the sense of selective affinity, between vowels and consonants, between vowels and vowels, and consonants and consonants.
11. Where the text of the poems in this book differs from that of earlier printed versions, the change has been made at the author's request.
12. In some continental European countries, there are language academies which practically legislate the language. . . Not that the Academies really want to halt the process of language change. They only want to turn it into what they consider desirable channels. But the Academy's view of what is a desirable channel and the view of the great body of speakers aren't always quite the same.
13. Having defined what we mean by a culture area we may now return to the question of how far and in what way these areas are correlated with environment.
14. In "Alice in Wonderland" (1865) Lewis Carrol reached the highest point of what may be called the "nonsense" story, in which the most absurd things seem to be given for the moment almost the semblance of truth.
15. Why the noble example set by Chaucer should not have been ably followed up or even developed in other directions it is difficult to tell.
16. Human language is in some ways similar to, but in other ways vastly different from, other kinds of animal communications.
17. Man lives in society, and acts together with his fellow-men. His whole mode of life is social. Therefore just as it is in his social activity that he enlarges his perceptions, so it is in his social activity that, starting from these perceptions, he begins to form ideas, to think and to develop his ideas.
18. In comparative lexicology we constantly see how the things to be represented by words are grouped differently according to the whims of different languages, what is fused together in one being separated in another.
19. Between 1400 and 1500 the final "e" which characterised so many Middle English words ceased to be pronounced. Where it occurred after a consonant preceded by a short vowel it was generally dropped; where it succeeded a consonant preceded by a long vowel, it was retained as a sign of vowel-length.
20. The victory was rewarded with the honour of a full triumph(12) :Marcellus was denied a triumph on the technical grounds that he was unable to withdraw his army from Sicily, and had to be content with an ovation(12). That Marcellus and his supporters felt that he had been unjustly treated is indicated by his celebration of an official triumph on the Alban hill.
21. Older books (in the library) should receive fuller treatment, and in many libraries, the greater the age of the book, the more detail included on the appropriate catalogue entries.
22. That many words which are separated in spelling are in reality compounds is also proved by the fact that they are grammatically treated as if they were single words.
23. Material of significance belongs to two categories. The former must be studied by the philologists before it can be utilized by the historian; the latter must similarly pass through the hands of field archaeologists.
24. On the forested plains of Northern Europe the hunters and fishers seem to have been still largely nomadic in Pre'Boreal times, to have shifted annually from summer to winter camps during the Boreal phase, but to have settled down in permanent encampments beside good fishing- grounds or oyster-beds in the Atlantic, at the same time improving their technique.
25. The history of nature reflected bourgeois social relations no less than the theories it replaced had reflected feudal social relations. But just as the new bourgeois social relations broke the feudal fetters and enabled a great new development of the forces of production to begin, so the corresponding bourgeois theory of nature broke down the barriers which feudal ideas had placed in the way of scientific research and enabled a great new development of scientific research to begin.



(10) Johnson -- Бен Джонсон (1574--1637), английский писатель и драматург, современник Шекспира,
(11) end -- здесь: цель.
(12) Триумф и овация -- виды празднования победы в Древнем Риме.