СТРАДАТЕЛЬНЫЙ ЗАЛОГ

1. ОСНОВНЫЕ СПОСОБЫ ПЕРЕВОДА СТРАДАТЕЛЬНОГО ЗАЛОГА

     Если сказуемое выражено глаголом в страдательном залоге, то подлежащее не выполняет действия, а подвергается действию, выраженному этим глаголом; сравните:

     При переводе на русский язык страдательную конструкцию можно передать следующими способами:

1. Русской формой страдательного залога данного глагола в соответствующем времени, лице и числе:

The paper was written last year.
Статья была написана в прошлом году.

2. Возвратной формой глагола на "-ся", "-сь" в соответствующем времени, лице и числе:

The excavations were made on the left side of the hill.
Раскопки производились на левой стороне холма.

3.Неопределенно-личной формой глагола действительного залога в соответствующем времени в 3-м л. мн. ч.:

The excavation was made with great care.
Раскопку производили с большой осторожностью.

4. Личной формой глагола в действительном залоге (такой перевод возможен только в том случае, если указано лицо, производящее действие, т. е. если в предложении есть дополнение с предлогом by):

These papers were written by one and the same author.
Эти работы писал один и тот же автор.

Примечание. В некоторых случаях сочетание глагола to be с причастием II не является формой страдательного залога, а представляет собой именное сказуемое, которое в отличие от форм страдательного залога выражает состояние, а не действие; ср.:

Упражнения

1. Определите время сказуемого. Дайте все возможные варианты перевода.

1. Only a few instances will be given here.
2. His answer was appreciated by everybody.
3. A new exhibition has been organized in this building.
4. The most important documents are signed here.
5. His lecture will be broadcast by the radio tomorrow.
6. The new-discovered language was described and deciphered.
7. The inscriptions have not yet been fully studied.
8. The most important archaeological collections are housed in museums.
9. This paper was first published in another edition, and is reprinted here with the permission of the editors.
10. The above problem is being investigated by one of the writers(1), and the results will be published separately.
11. All these ancient tools have been mentioned above, and something more will be said about them in the following chapter.

2. Подберите наилучший вариант перевода.

1. According to one version the famous library was destroyed during the strife between Ptolemy XV and his sister Cleopatra for the throne; according to another, it was burned six centuries later.
2. Almost all sciences except perhaps medicine suffered a relapse (2) during the Dark Ages (3) when scientific pursuits were considered antireligious. The occasional scholar who attempted such studies was often persecuted and his progress discouragingly slow.
3. The origin of the race of men who made the Nile valley the cradle of civilization is still being sought by scholars.
4. On the whole (4) Chekhov's plays are constructed in the same way as his stories. The differences are due to the differences of material and are imposed by the use of dialogue.
5. These papers were in their original form read at a conference of the English Institute, 1954.

(1) writers -- здесь: авторы.
(2) a relapse -- здесь: период упадка, застоя (амер.).
(3) Dark Ages -- средние века.
(4) on the whole -- в целом.

2.ПЕРЕВОД СОЧЕТАНИЙ МОДАЛЬНОГО ГЛАГОЛА С ИНФИНИТИВОМ В СТРАДАТЕЛЬНОМ ЗАЛОГЕ

Упражнение

Переведите. Обратите внимание на значение и время модального глагола.

1. The question can be decided later.
2. The newspaper must be translated without a dictionary.
3. The lecture is to be delivered at eleven o'clock.
4. The teacher fell ill, so the lesson had to be postponed.
5. A word should be said about the origin of this term.
6. This rule cannot be applied here.
7. These books must not be touched without permission.
8. A word or two(6) may be said as to the plan upon which the book is constructed.
9. The letters will have to be posted in the morning.

(6) a word, a word or two -- несколько слов.

3.ОСОБЕННОСТИ ПЕРЕВОДА ПОДЛЕЖАЩЕГО ПРИ СКАЗУЕМОМ В СТРАДАТЕЛЬНОМ ЗАЛОГЕ

     Подлежащее английской страдательной конструкции от целого ряда глаголов (7) следует переводить косвенным или прямым дополнением (т. е. в дательном, винительном и творительном падеже), а сказуемое (форму страдательного залога) -- неопределенно-личной формой глагола:

I was shown the new photographs.
Мне показали новые фотографии.

Не was asked to wait.
Его попросили подождать.

(7) Имеются в виду глаголы, принимающие два дополнения -- прямое и косвенное.

     При следующих глаголах(8), употребленных в страдательном залоге, подлежащее английского предложения следует переводить дательным, винительным или творительным падежом:

(8) Здесь и во всех последующих списках глаголов приводятся лишь те значения, которые данные глаголы имеют в страдательной конструкции.

В дательном падеже

to advise -- советовать
to order -- приказывать
to aid -- помогать
to permit -- позволять, разрешать
to assist -- помогать
to deny -- отказывать (в)
to precede -- предшествовать
to give -- давать, дарить
to promise -- обещать
to forbid -- запрещать
to refuse -- отказывать
to forgive -- прощать
to send -- посылать, присылать
to help -- помогать
to inform -- сообщать
to show -- показывать
to oppose -- противиться, противостоять
to tell -- сказать, велеть
to threaten -- угрожать

В винительном падеже

to ask -- (по)просить, спрашивать
to send -- посылать
to see -- видеть
to avoid -- избегать
to teach -- учить, обучать, преподавать
to oppose -- быть против

В творительном падеже

to admire -- восхищаться
to own -- владеть, обладать
to ignore -- пренебрегать

Упражнения

1. Переведите. Обратите внимание на то, каким падежом следует перевести подлежащее английского предложения.

1. We were informed that he had been sent to a conference.
2. He was sent only two copies of this book.
3. They were asked about it yesterday.
4. We were asked to come in.
5. He had been taught Latin and Greek in his boyhood.
6. We were given only three tickets instead of five.
7. She was given a watch as a birthday present.
8. The visitors were shown many new exhibits.
9. They were shown into a large hall.
10. He has not been seen anywhere today.
11. We were shown in (9) and asked to wait.
12. She was advised to spend the summer in the Crimea.
13. They were ordered to be silent.
14. The painter was assisted by two of his disciples.
15. We have not been offered anything yet.
16. The boy was helped with his lessons by his elder sister.
17. I was told that all the strangers were refused admittance to that building.
18.To this end (10) lengthy discussion has been avoided here.
19. He was admired not only for his technical skill, but also for his ability to attract people.
20. This information should not be ignored.
21. This unpleasant meeting is not to be avoided.

(9) to show in -- провести в дом кого-л.
(10) to this end -- для этого, с этой целью.

2. Переведите. Обратите внимание на то, каким падежом следует перевести подлежащее английского предложения.

1. By 1542 Negro slaves were forbidden to leave the haciendas, villages or cities after dark.
2. The preservation of an archaic literary language is greatly helped by its being at the same time a written language.
3. Tents were quickly dressed, and the knights were told to dismount from their horses.
4. This work cannot be given a high place as literature(11) but it is valuable for the contemporary documents it contains.
5. This analogical tendency is to some extent (12) aided by grammarians who prefer "regular" to "irregular" schemes.
6. Fielding's last novel "Amelia" has been admired by some even more than "Tom Jones" (13) probably because of the beautiful character of the heroine.
7. For a number of years commercial relations were kept up with Spain through Mexico, and the Dutch and the English were both permitted to establish trading factories in the South.
8. In the later history of Chinese, the use of the classifier was favoured by the increasing phonetic poverty and different classifiers served to distinguish words which were becoming homophones.
9. Esarhaddon's(14) appointment had been opposed by his brothers and some district governors who incited his father against him.
10. Consequently expert seamen and ship's carpenters were sent out from St. Petersburg. On one hand the men were promised both worldly and spiritual rewards: wealth, promotions and imperial favour if by the Grace of Christ they would reach Kamchatka. On the other hand they were threatened with certain death if they delayed or slowed down their voyage.
11. Festivals were preceded by hunting expeditions to obtain small animals, such as rats, which were smoked and strung together to be worn as necklaces.
12. The sword in Old English times was owned (judging from finds), by only one man in twenty.

(11) a literature -- здесь: литературное произведение.
(12) to some extent -- до некоторой степени.
(13) "Амелия", "Тон Джонс" -- романы Генрн Филдинга (1707-- 1754).
(14) Esarhaddon -- Асархаддон, ассирийский царь (681 -- 668 до н. э.).

4.ОСОБЕННОСТИ ПЕРЕВОДА СТРАДАТЕЛЬНОГО ЗАЛОГА ОТ ГЛАГОЛОВ,
ПРИНИМАЮЩИХ ПРЕДЛОЖНОЕ ДОПОЛНЕНИЕ

     При употреблении в страдательном залоге ряда глаголов, требующих после себя предлога (например, смотреть на посетителей), английское подлежащее с относящимся к нему и к глаголу предлогом переводится дополнением с соответствующим предлогом, а сказуемое-- неопределенно-личной формой глагола:

The new discovery was much spoken about.
О новом открытии много говорили.

The visitors were looked at with great interest.
На посетителей смотрели с большим интересом.

    Некоторым глаголам с предлогами в русском языке также соответствуют глаголы, принимающие предложное дополнение:

to agree on (upon) -- договориться о
to arrive at -- приходить к, прибывать в
to attend to -- ухаживать за
to confront with -- стоять перед
to depart from -- отступать от, уклоняться от
to dispense with -- обходиться без
to delve into -- углубляться в, копаться, рыться в
to do away with -- покончить с (прикончить кого)
отказаться от
to face with -- стоять перед, столкнуться с
to give up -- отказаться от (перестать, бро-
сить делать что-л.)
to hit upon -- наткнуться, натолкнуться на (найти)
to insist on (upon) -- настаивать на
to laugh at -- смеяться над
to look at -- смотреть на
to look after -- присматривать за
to refer to -- ссылаться на, упоминать о, от носить(ся) к, отсылать к
to rely on (upon) -- полагаться на
to send for -- посылать за
to speak about (of) -- говорить о
to talk about -- говорить о
to think of -- думать о


Упражнения

1. Переведите предложения, предварительно подобрав к глаголу соответствующий предлог в русском языке (см. выше список глаголов с предлогами).

1. Не was well spoken of by all his friends.
2. The hour of the meeting was agreed upon.
3. This case was much spoken and written about.
4. His data can be relied upon.
5. The room has not been slept in for many years.
6. The whole story was much laughed at.

2. Переведите. Обратите внимание на место предлога в русском предложении и на перевод самого предлога.

1. The order of words (in English) is fairly rigid: it cannot easily be departed from, and most departures alter the type, or the emphasis, or the meaning of the sentence.
2. Place names cannot always be relied on for guidance.
3. For further details the reader is referred to the end of the book.
4. It's twenty years since he went away from home with his gun, and he has never been heard of since.
5. His poetry, which is very good, if not absolutely of the first class, may be spoken of later.
6. In English, as in other European languages, most words can be referred with certainty to Aryan (15) roots, but others are more recent than the time when written literature began.
7. This work should also be referred to for a detailed account of the Museum Collections.
8. In the fashionable districts of Bath (16) practically every dwelling had been lived in at some time by many famous people.
9. On the whole this defective system (of writing) works quite well in literature with which the reader is well acquainted, and it is indeed surprising to the European student of the Semitic languages to discover how easily vowel signs can be dispensed with in reading.
10. The use of soft copper was given up very soon wherever intercourse with the whites became habitual and iron became obtainable.

(15) Aryan -- индоевропейский.
(16) Bath -- Бат, старинный город Англии, в котором сохранились остатки бань, построенных римлянами в I в. н. э. 13


     Ряду глаголов, принимающих предложное дополнение, в русском языке соответствуют переходные глаголы:

to account for -- объяснять, быть причиной
to adhere to -- придерживаться
to bring about -- вызывать, осуществлять(ся)
to comment (up) on -- комментировать
to improve (up) on -- улучшать
to deal with -- рассматривать, разбирать, заниматься
to listen to -- слушать
to meet with -- встречаться
to refer to as -- называть, именовать
to touch (up) on -- касаться, рассматривать, затрагивать
to wait for -- ждать

Упражнение

Переведите

1. The exceptions are not easily accounted for.
2. Expressions of this kind are often met with in his poetry.
3. These lines will be commented upon in the following paragraph.
4. He is often referred to аs the founder of tin's school.
5. Some urgent problems of our work have been touched upon here.
6. We were listened to with much surprise.
7. Tell him he is waited for.
8. The speaker was listened to with growing interest.
9. The details will be dealt with later.
10. Great changes were brought about by historical factors.

5.ОСОБЕННОСТИ ПЕРЕВОДА СТРАДАТЕЛЬНОГО ЗАЛОГА ОТ ПЕРЕХОДНЫХ ГЛАГОЛОВ

     При употреблении в страдательном залоге некоторых переходных глаголов подлежащее английского предложения переводится предложным дополнением:

This language was spoken five hundred years ago.
На этом языке говорили пятьсот лет назад.

     Наиболее употребительны следующие переходные глаголы, которым в русском языке соответствуют глаголы, принимающие предложное дополнение:

to address -- обращаться к
to affect -- влиять, воздействовать на, затрагивать что-л.
to answer -- отвечать па
to approach -- подходить к, рассматривать что-л.
to attend - присутствовать на, сопровождать, сопутствовать
to enjoy -- получать удовольствие от •
to enter -- входить, вступать в
to follow -- следовать за, следить за, следовать чему-л., придерживаться чего-л., преследовать кого-л.
to join - присоединяться к
to judge -- судить о
to influence -- влиять, воздействовать на
to penetrate -- вступать в, входить в, проникать в
to speak -- говорить на (каком-л. языке)
to succeed -- следовать за, наследовать что-л.
to watch --- следить за, наблюдать

Упражнения

1. Переведите, предварительно установив, какого предлога требует глагол в русском языке.

1. We were joined by the others only two hours later.
2. The first question is readily answered.
3. He was addressed by a stranger.
4. He had been greatly influenced by Dutch painters.
5. This dialect is spoken only in the mountaneous part of the country.
6. Each poem of this kind is almost always followed by a short maxim,
7. This sacred room was penetrated only by the higher priests.
8. The problem of Greek decline may be approached from two sides.
9. Our (English) modern consonants are little affected by surrounding vowels.
10. We shall now see how the three departments of literature -- prose, poetry and the drama -- were affected by this new spirit.
11. The pronunciation of a few English words has been affected by modern French: for example, machine and police.
12. The authenticity of this document may be judged from several sources.

2. Переведите. Укажите залог и время сказуемого.

1. Everybody followed his example.
2. His example was followed by everybody.
3. One volume followed the other.
4. This volume was followed by a second one.
5. She has not followed your advice.
6. Your advice has not been followed.
7. Both men followed each other in silence.
8. The introduction is followed by the list of illustrations.
9. The majority of authors follow this simple rule.
10. This simple rule is followed by the majority of grammarians.
11. The police were following him for several hours.
12. He understood that he was being followed by the police.

3. Переведите предложения, учитывая разные значения глаголов to affect, to follow, to succeed.

1. The first revolutionary wave broke in 1825, in the entirely unsupported and unsuccessful mutiny of the Decembrists. It was followed by the long reaction of the reign of Nicholas I, during which rose the second wave.
2. Italy, within which at the dawn of history a multitude of different languages and dialects were spoken, achieved linguistic unity under the aegis of Rome.
3. As time went on, this culture tended to become rather less purely Greek, for it was penetrated to a greater or lesser degree by oriental elements.
4. Numerous foreign terms of civilized life appeared in old English times, and were joined in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries by a crowd of others connected with the church.
5. The method I have been describing in the text is, of course, one that is followed by all of us.
6. This glacial period was followed by a warmer interval known as the First Interglacial Stage.
7. Bulgarian art was in fact more closely affected by Constantinople than was the art of many of the numerous portions of the empire which never enjoyed (17) national independence.
8."Lady Windermere's Fan" was a success. It was followed by "A Woman of No Importance"(18) produced at the Haymarket Theatre on 19 April, 1893.
9. If the correct syntactical punctuation is followed, the texts may be translated as follows.
10. The purpose of the present study is to examine the way in which Dickensian biography and criticism have been, affected in their development by the materials that were most easily available.
11. These biographies were succeeded by the standard biography of Dickens, written by his friend John Forster which still remains the best written and the most reliable.
12. This king was succeeded by his eldest son Motokiyo, who died in 1455.
13. The houses of this small town are funny-shaped. Most of them are entered by a staircase, as the lower part is used as a fish-cellar.
14. In preparing this new edition the original arrangement has been followed in general outline.
15. The new schools of dramatists were largely influenced by the French drama and French fashions.
16. What is the main lesson of Hamlet? The question, I think, is answered in all essentials in the following passage.
17. If one and the same language is spoken in different communities, the tendency will be not only to change, but also to differentiation.
18. Mary I (1553--1558) died young and was succeeded by her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth I (1558--1603).

(17) to enjoy -- здесь: пользоваться.
(18) Пьесы Оскара Уайльда: "Веер леди Виндермир" и "Женщина, не стоящая внимания".

6.ОСОБЕННОСТИ ПЕРЕВОДА СТРАДАТЕЛЬНОГО ЗАЛОГА,
ВЫРАЖЕННОГО СОЧЕТАНИЕМ ГЛАГОЛА С СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНЫМ

     Форму страдательного залога могут принимать фразеологические сочетания глагола с существительным. Буквальный перевод этих сочетаний не всегда возможен. В русском языке им обычно соответствуют глаголы или эквивалентные сочетания глагола с существительным, например: to make use (of) -- использовать, to pay attention (to) - обращать внимание на. Такие сочетания могут образовать два типа страдательной конструкции. В одном случае подлежащим страдательной конструкции становится существительное, входящее в сочетание, например, to make use of (обычно это прямое дополнение к глаголу):

Use was made of the following examples.
Были использованы следующие примеры.

В другом -- подлежащим страдательной конструкции становится слово (существительное или местоимение), которое представляет собой предложное дополнение ко всему сочетанию; например:

The following examples were made use of.
Были использованы следующие примеры.

Наиболее употребительны следующие сочетания глагола с существительным:

to call attention to -- обращать внимание па
to draw attention to -- привлекать внимание
to give attention to -- уделять внимание
to have regard to -- принимать во внимание, учитывать
to have recourse to -- прибегать (к помощи)
to pay attention to -- уделять, обращать внима ние на
to exercise influence (on) -- оказывать влияние
to lavish care (on) -- окружать заботой
to lose sight (of) -- терять из вида, упускать из вида
to make allusion (to) -- упоминать, ссылаться, намекать
to make attempt (s) -- делать попытку, пытаться
to make (an) effort -- делать усилие, стараться
to make mention (of) -- упоминать
to make reference (to) -- упоминать, ссылаться
to make use (of) -- использовать
to place emphasis (on) -- подчеркивать
to put an end (to) -- положить конец чему-л.
to show preference (to) -- выказывать предпочтение
to take advantage (of) -- воспользоваться
to take account (of) -- учитывать, принимать во внимание
to take care (of) --заботиться, учитывать, ста раться
to take care + инфинитив (или that) -- стараться, стремиться
to take notice (of) -- замечать, обращать вни-
мание на to take opportunity -- (вос)пользоваться случаем


Упражнения

1. Найдите в следующих предложениях сочетание глагола с существительным. Переведите предложения.

1. Efforts were made to elucidate the problem.
2.No special attention has been paid to this period of his life.
3. Care was taken not to overburden the text with too many quotations.
4. His letter has not been taken any notice of.
5. This opportunity should not be lost sight of.
6. A preference is shown by the author to short dialogues.

2. Переведите предложения, предварительно сделав перевод сочетания глагола с существительным.

1. It is possible, however, that too much emphasis has been placed upon this factor.
2. Lastly, mention must be made of Milton's technical skill.
3. More careful attention was paid to grammar at that period.
4. An effort has, in addition, been made to provide a continuous narrative, and to avoid the form of a handbook intended primarily for consultation.
5. In ordinary communicative speech no attention is drawn to the sound of words, or to word order.
6. The entire question cannot be here discussed, but attention should be called to the fact that many of these resemblances between ancient and modern features are more fancied than real.
7. This system known in Japanese history as "Southern and Northern Courts" (19) was put an end to by the reunion of the two lines in the person of Go Comatsu (1392).

(19) "Southern and Northern Courts" -- "Северный и Южный двор" в (период правления двух враждующих династий в Японии XIV в.

7. ОСОБЕННОСТИ ПЕРЕВОДА БЕЗЛИЧНЫХ КОНСТРУКЦИЙ В СТРАДАТЕЛЬНОМ ЗАЛОГЕ

Наиболее употребительны следующие модели безличной страдательной конструкции.
It is said that . . . Говорят, что .. .
It is thought that . . . Считают (полагают), что . . .
It is expected that . . . Ожидают (ожидается), что. . .
It is known that . . . Известно, что . . .
It is said by our historians that . . . Наши историки считают, что. . .
It is said of this author that . . . Об этом авторе говорят, что. . .
It is known about him that . . . О нем известно, что. . .
It must be stressed that . . . Следует (нужно) подчеркнуть, что. . .
It cannot be denied that . . . Нельзя отрицать (того), что. . .
It should be remembered that . . . Следует помнить, что. . .
It was considered possible to find these manuscripts. Считали возможным найти эти рукописи.
It was thought useful to publish these data. Считали полезным опубликовать эти данные.
Let it be stressed that . . . Следует подчеркнуть, что. . .

     Безличные конструкции, употребленные в качестве вводного члена предложения, возможны как с формальным it, так и без него:

The material, it will be observed, contains many examples of this kind.
Материал, как можно заметить, содержит много примеров такого рода.

As is readily seen from the text. . .
Как можно легко заметить из текста. . .
Как видно (явствует) из текста. . .

Упражнения

1. Переведите предложения, учитывая особенности перевода безличных конструкций.

1. It is known that they will arrive tomorrow.
2. It is expected that the Conference will take place in Kiev.
3. It is hoped that the new edition of this book will be of no less interest to the reader.
4. It will be noticed that these poems are of quite a different character.
5. It has been shown in the above examples that the sense of the sentence often depends on the order of words.
6. It is sometimes said that the Nile is longer than all the rivers in the eastern and western hemispheres.
7. It will be seen from the following tables that the sounds do not coincide in quality.
8. It is related of this man that he never passed a day of his life without reading.
9. It was thought useful to apply this method here.
10. It has been estimated that the volume contained 220 pages.

2. Переведите. Подберите в каждом случае наиболее подходящий вариант перевода модального глагола.

1. It must be borne in mind that all the rules may have exceptions.
2. It must be added that the minor works are not included here.
3. It cannot be denied that his original work is a success.
4. It is to be remembered that these data come from different sources.

3. Переведите предложения, стараясь подобрать наиболее точный эквивалент для выражения безличного или неопределенно-личного предложения в русском.

1. It will be seen that the distinction between different parts of speech always depends on formal criteria.
2. It was doubted that Shaw's plays would retain their interest when the problems treated in them -- slums, women's rights, marriage customs had ceased to be of immediate concern. (20)
3. Views as to (21) the actual date of the manuscript varied; the seventh century was the most usually favoured, but it was generally agreed that the illustrations belonged to an archetype perhaps as early as (22) the second century.
4. It will be readily understood that the difficulty of arriving at the (23) meaning of such compositions is very considerable.
5. In considering loan-words it has to be remembered that, when two languages are in contact, words which are themselves borrowed may pass from one to another.
6. It has been said that Latin is more concise than English. The reverse is the case(24). English is briefer than Latin.
7. It is to be remembered that it was advisable to issue the proclamation of Henry Ill's adherence to the Provisions (25) in English as well as in Latin.
8. Speaking of the influence exerted on the African peasants by workers who lose their jobs and return to their native villages, Woddis writes: "One is inevitably reminded here of Lenin's observations regarding the influence of the Russian workers on the peasant in the period leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1905".
9. The Eskimos of the North-west Coast, it will be remembered, use to this day harpoon-heads of this kind.
10. Let it be stressed, however, that an understanding of the build and form of the land, a knowledge of the routes of communication and an idea of the character of the natural resources -- are all of them factors which should be considered at the outset (26) by every historian of art in the course of his examination of a particular area or a particular civilization.
11. It has been thought not superfluous, however, to add a few data of this kind, without a knowledge of which it is impossible to understand the course of the literary development.
12."Better a live dog than a dead lion". The last example, it will be observed, contains transverse alliteration and assonance.
13. As is readily seen, the problems and questions in regard to (27) this subject are far more numerous than the solutions.
14. People living upon lakes plentifully stocked with fish, it can be imagined, availed themselves of all means in their power for capturing them.
15. It has been ascertained beyond doubt that two kinds of cattle were common during the stone age.

(20) to be of concern -- иметь значение.
(21) as to -- в отношении, относительно.
(22) as early as -- еще в ...
(23) to arrive at -- здесь: разгадать (достичь понимания).
(24) the reverse is the case -- здесь: дело обстоит наоборот.
(25) The Provisions -- здесь: Великая Хартия (собственно, подтверждение Хартии).
(26) at the outset -- с самого начала.
(27) in regard to --- относительно.

Повторение страдательного залога

Переведите.

1. In Eire, the Irish Free State, Irish has been made the official language and is spoken by about three million people, practically all of whom also speak English.
2. Few references to other works have been given in the body of the text, although the author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to all the works listed in general bibliography and the chapter bibliographies to which the student is referred to for anything beyond the outline here offered.
3. It is recognized that equivalence in both meaning and style cannot always be retained. When, therefore, one must be abandoned for the sake of the other, the meaning must have priority over the stylistic forms.
4. The bibliographies at the close of each chapter have again been brought up to date(28), though they have at the same time also been somewhat simplified.
5. The formation of a common language is assisted by intercourse of any kind, so especially by military service.
6. The Stone Age Section has been given the largest space, especially now that a special exhibition of the new acquisitions has been arranged.
7. He began his writing in the old style, and though he could not, as an educated man brought in close contact with the younger poets, be unaffected by them, he was by no means a consistent adherent of the school.
8. The opportunity has been taken here to publish a revised edition covering a much wider and more representative selection of London's libraries.
9. Meanwhile, in 1704, the Kamchatkan tradesman Vasilii Kolesov had been ordered by the authorities in Yakutsk to explore the limits of Kamchatka and to investigate whether there existed islands and if so to whom they belonged.
10. Long after Sanscrit ceased to be spoken as anyone's native language, it remained (as classical Latin remained in Europe) the artificial medium for all writing on learned topics.
11. These two individuals, the speaker and the hearer, and their relations to one another should never be lost sight of, if we want to understand the nature of language, and that part of language which is dealt with in grammar.
12. The whole question of Middle English dialects is now being subjected to rigorous scrutiny by A. Mc. Infosh (Edinburgh) and some others.
13. Thinking arises only out of sense-perception and must be preceded by it.
14. The Reference books in the Reading Room are kept under review and, wherever necessary, new books are substituted for those which are superseded.
15. Much of the older grammatical equipment of particles and terminations is now dispensed with (in Modern Japanese).
16. Slaves (in America) were chattels; they were denied even the sensibilities of a brute animal. Two hundred years of legislation had sanctified and sanctioned Negro Slaves a property. And property they indeed were. Like domestic animals they were referred to as "stock".
17. Nevertheless, it may be affirmed that there were repeated glaciations in Northern Germany, and it may safely be asserted that the maximum glaciation there coincided with the Mindel Glacial Stage in the Alpine region.
18. The general plan, however, of this series has not been lost sight of. Important writers have been treated at comparatively greater length, to the neglect of many lesser notabilities, and an attempt has been made, in so far as (29) the state of our knowledge permits, to follow the literature and to trace the causes which determined its character at particular periods.
19. In 1837 one ship made its way nearly to Yedo (30) in the effort to return a few castaways. She was fired upon, and returned without having landed her charges.
20. American artists from Brockden Brown and Рое to Henry James and Eliot have suffered this fate. They have been thought of as expatriots and they have been denied a place in the literary history of the nation because they criticized their civilization.
21. Within a few centuries, owing to the difficulty of communications and the lack of a literary tradition, the Anglo-Saxon of England and the Frisian of the German lowlands had developed into widely divergent languages. At a much later period the coming of English-speaking immigrants to the shores of America was attended by a somewhat similar linguistic divergence.
22. Roman Latin had become the standard, normal speech of all Italy and after the first century A. D. no reference was made to local accents or dialectal variations.
23. People are influenced by the pronunciation and words they hear on the radio and TV or in spoken motion pictures, and our radio and- TV-picture language is imitated more and more by the people who hear it so that our language tends to become more and more uniform all the time.
24. It is assumed by many people that a repetition of a word will make the meaning more emphatic, but this is not always the case.(31)
25. Simpler forms are substituted for the older, and the vocabulary is enriched by the accession of a vast number of new words.
26.As new things were invented, they were given names built up from Latin and Greek roots.
27.As before noticed, the work of Mr. Wells as a true novelist must really be judged on the work of the period 1900-1909.
28. There can be little doubt that the Angles, Saxons and Jutes were a mixture of many tribal elements; though after they had been settled a few generations in England, Angles were being addressed as Saxons, Saxons were calling themselves Angles and the whole conglomeration was being referred to as Englishmen and their language as English speech.

(28) to bring up to date -- пересмотреть, привести в современный вид.
(29) in so far as -- настолько, насколько.
(30) Yedo -- Йедо, старое название г. Токио.
(31) this is (not) the case -- это (не) так