ПРИЧАСТИЕ И ПРИЧАСТНЫЕ ОБОРОТЫ

1. ФОРМЫ ПРИЧАСТИЯ И ИХ ЗНАЧЕНИЕ

     В английском языке существуют три основные формы причастия.

      Причастие I (неопределенное), имеющее от переходных глаголов и глаголов, принимающих предложное дополнение, формы действительного и страдательного залога, а от непереходных глаголов -- только форму действительного залога.
      Причастие II (неопределенное), имеющее от переходных и принимающих предложное дополнение глаголов лишь форму страдательного залога, а от непереходных глаголов -- непереводимую форму, употребляемую только в сложных временах.
     Перфектное причастие, имеющее от переходных глаголов формы действительного и страдательного залога, а от непереходных глаголов -- только форму действительного залога.

Система причастий от переходного глагола

Форма причастия	Действительный залог	Страдательный залог
Неопределенное причастие I (Present Participle)	asking	being asked
Неопределенное причастие II (Past Participle)		asked
Перфектное причастие (Perfect Participle)	having asked	having been asked

      В зависимости от функции, выполняемой причастием в предложении (в качестве определения или обстоятель- ства), оно может быть переведено причастием (или определительным причастным оборотом) или деепричастием.
     Так, причастие I действительного залога употребляется в обеих функциях; причастие I страдательного залога -- чаще в функции обстоятельства; причастие II -- чаще в функции определения, а перфектное причастие -- почти исключительно в функции обстоятельства.
     Причастия не имеют самостоятельного значения времени. Так, например, причастие I, поскольку оно выражает действие, одновременное со сказуемым, в русском языке может соответствовать причастию настоящего или прошедшего времени в зависимости от времени сказуемого:

The man waiting for you has come from Moscow.
Человек, ожидающий вас, приехал из Москвы.

The man waiting for you asked for your telephone number.
Человек, ждавший вас, спрашивал ваш номер телефона.

      Причастие II от переходных глаголов имеет значение одновременного действия и соответствует русскому страдательному причастию настоящего или прошедшего времени:

The books ordered here are usually sent by post.
Книги, заказываемые (которые заказывают) здесь, обычно пересылаются по почте.

The books ordered last month have not arrived yet.
Книги, заказанные в прошлом месяце, еще не пришли.

Примечание. В английском язык
е нет соответствующей формы причастия действительного залога: Человек, заказавший книги. The man who ordered the books.

     Перфектное причастие выражает действие, предшествующее действию сказуемого, и переводится на русский язык деепричастием совершенного вида:

Having ordered the books we went home.
Заказав книги, мы отправились домой.

     Перфектное причастие страдательного залога чаще всего переводится на русский язык придаточным обстоятельственным предложением причины или времени.

Having been sent only yesterday, the letter could not have been received by him today.
Так как письмо было послано только вчера, оно не могло быть получено им сегодня.

Having been kept in the reading-room for ten days, the books were then returned to the funds.
После того как книги хранились в течение десяти дней в читальном зале, их затем вернули в фонд.

Способы перевода английских причастий на русский язык

Форма причастия	Залог	Пример	Перевод              определение                      обстоятельство
Неопределенное причастие I	действительный	reading (переходн.)	читающий, читавший	читая, прочитав
		coming (непереходн.)	идущий, шедший	идя, подойдя
	страдательный	being read	читаемый, читавшийся	будучи читаем, будучи прочтен, придаточным предложением
Неопределенное причастие II	страдательный	read	читаемый, читанный, прочтённый	будучи читаем, прочитан, придаточным предложением
		come	непереводимая форма, употребляемая в сложных временах
Перфектное причастие	действительный	having read	-	прочитав, прочтя, придаточным предложением
		having come	-	придя, придаточным предложением
	страдательный	having been read	-	будучи (ранее) прочтен, придаточным предложением

 

2. ПРИЧАСТИЕ И ПРИЧАСТНЫЕ ОБОРОТЫ В ФУНКЦИИ ОПРЕДЕЛЕНИЯ

     Причастие, употребляемое в функции определения, может стоять перед определяемым словом или после него. Оно переводится на русский язык соответствующим причастием и ставится перед определяемым словом независимо от его положения в английском предложении:

The conclusions being drawn are based on recent finds.
Выводимые заключения основываются на последних находках.

Latin was the ancestor of all the languages mentioned.
Латынь была предком всех упомянутых языков.

     Причастие с зависящими от него словами образует причастный оборот. Причастный оборот в функции определения стоит после определяемого слова (существительного или местоимения) и переводится причастным оборотом с соответствующей формой причастия или определительным придаточным предложением:

The study was dimly lit by a candle burning in the adjoining room.
Кабинет был слабо освещен свечой, горевшей (которая горела) в соседней комнате.

     Определительный причастный оборот типа "as given"(1), состоящий из союза as+причастие II, стоит после определяемого существительного и переводится на русский язык придаточным предложением, начинающимся со слов
"в том виде, как", "так, как", или причастием в функции определения:

The author's general conclusions as given in his latest work, are of great practical value.
Общие выводы автора в том виде, как они даны (приводятся) в его последней работе, имеют большое практическое значение. Общие выводы автора, приводимые (которые приводятся). . .

(1) Аналогичное сочетание союза as и причастия II может образовать и обстоятельственный оборот, например: as stated above -- как указано выше

Упражнения
1. Переведите, определив форму причастия. Обратите внимание на место причастия в английском и русском предложениях.

1. Of the three instances cited, only the last possesses a verbal suffix which is regularly found in other words.
2. The results obtained are consistent and may be summed up in one simple rule.
3. A proper noun is a name given to one particular person or thing.
4. The information gained throws a flood of light upon the mode of action of the human vocal apparatus.
5. The language processes apply not only to English, but to all languages. In all of them you will find words dying out, and words being born, words being created and old words being put together to form new words, words being taken from other languages and words changing their use and meanings.
6. Formal excavations began in 1961. From work already completed we have established that the ancient capital was correctly described in the "Outline of Historical Geography".
7. The following figures(2), partly covering the territory investigated, illustrate the extent of losses caused by the fire.
8. The new poetry differed from the old in other respects than in the technical form of its verse. There was also a change in the subjects treated, and in the manner of treating them.

2 figures -- цифровые данные. 76

2. Переведите предложения с оборотом "as+npuчастие II".

1. The conclusion appears reasonable that Italian as spoken and written by the multitude of correct, nondialectal speakers and writers, is a compromise language, continuing the traditions of various dialects.
2. The evidence seems to show that urban life, as understood by the Romans, disappeared; the decay of the towns now became complete.
3. Broadly speaking, the subject of this literature had been man and his passions as influenced by his environment and by nature.
4. The English language as written at this time has several peculiarities which deserve to be noted.
5. This, however, does not seem to me to invalidate the general truth of the theory as here explained.
6. The first stage towards modern administrative "expertise" was in the establishment of specialized branches of the court. The first of these departments was the Exchequer (3) as organized by Henry I.

(3) The Exchequer - казначейство.

    Особенности перевода определительных оборотов с причастием II, образованным от глаголов, не имеющих в русском языке страдательной формы причастия.
      Английское причастие II страдательного залога от целого ряда глаголов(4), которые в русском языке принимают предложное дополнение, не имеет соответствующей формы страдательного причастия. Такое причастие с относящимися к нему словами переводится определительным придаточным предложением, а предлог, относящийся к русскому глаголу, ставится перед словом "который":

It is known that the language spoken by these tribes was Germanic.
Известно, что язык, на котором говорили эти племена, был германским.

The Congress attended by scientists from several countries was held at Copenhagen.
Конгресс, на котором присутствовали ученые из многих стран, состоялся в Копенгагене.

(4)Список глаголов, не образующих в русском языке соответствующей формы страдательного причастия (на "-нный", "-мый"), приводится в разделе "Страдательный залог"

Упражнение

При переводе обратите внимание на причастие в функции определения.

1. The man addressed by us turned out to be a teacher.
2. All the questions answered by him concerned his work.
3. The meeting attended by us was held in a big hall.
4. The group joined by them consisted of 12 people.
5. The book referred to here was published last year.
6. The man allowed to enter the first was very old and weak.
7. At last we saw the picture so much heard about.
8. There is only one group of words influenced by this phonetic change.
9. The language spoken in this small country is of a mixed origin.
10. The two men referred to were highly-placed officials.

11. A ceremony attended by famous men of letters was held at the Bolshoi Theatre.
12. A new program agreed upon by the two countries envisaged an interesting form of cultural cooperation.
13. The review is divided into three parts followed by a brief comment.
14. These manuscripts are somewhat newer than those referred to in the preceding paragraph.
15. The system followed in indicating the source whence a passage has been taken will, I think, be found sufficiently exact.
16. The ruling elite (in old Japan), amounting with its families to about one sixteenth of the population, was a hereditary class of fighters, forbidden to pursue any other vocation.
17. Of what origin were the tongues spoken by the earliest men? - is the question still pondered by those who devote themselves to this branch of study.
18. In the nineteenth century steam navigation and the railway were making it possible to transport goods in quantities hitherto undreamed of.
19. The number of words borrowed from foreign languages now surpasses the number of native words, and in place of complicated system of inflexions possessed by Old English, Modern English has very few inflexions.
20. Flaubert(5) like Dickens was a great writer faced with the problem of giving a true picture of a society.
21. The museum, beautiful and well cared for, has one of the best collections of Islamic manuscripts in the world.
22. The long Civil Wars, followed by the reorganization of the Roman Empire under Augustus and Tiberius, gave the distant Island (Britain) a hundred years of respite.
23. It must be stressed that within this period the changes referred to were not peculiar to one section of Romania, but appeared universally in all the future Romance countries.
24. Edward II was not much of a king. He was a weakling, influenced by vicious favourites, who practically controlled the government.

(5) Flaubert -- Флобер Гюстав (1821--1880).

 

3. ПРИЧАСТИЯ И ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫЕ, СОВПАДАЮЩИЕ ПО ФОРМЕ

     Слово, оканчивающееся на -ed и на -ing, употребленное в качестве определения, может оказаться не причастием, а прилагательным, совпадающим с ним по форме. Оно в этом случае не обозначает действия, а показывает качество или состояние предмета. В отличие от причастия такое прилагательное всегда стоит перед определяемым существительным. Значение его отличается от значения причастия.

Причастие	Прилагательное
The theory advanced in the early 19th -- теория, выдвинутая в начале XIX столетия.	An advanced theory -- передовая теория; advanced ideas -- передовые идеи.
The work accomplished in 1947 -- работа, законченнаяв 1947 г.	An accomplished artist -- превосходный художник; accomplished manners -- изысканные манеры.
The clock striking midnight -- часы, бьющие полночь.	A striking example -- удивительный пример; a striking resemblance -- поразительноесходство.
An experiment convincing everybody -- эксперимент, убеждающий всех.	A convincing argument -- убедительный довод.
The changes involved in this process -- изменения, связанные с этим процессом; a story involved in mystery -- история, окутанная тайной.	An involved sentence -- сложное (трудное) предложение; an involved style -- сложный (запутанный) стиль.
The language spoken in this country -- язык, на котором говорят в этой стране.	A spoken language -- разговорный язык.
The letter written by my sister -- письмо, написанное моей сестрой.	A written language -- письменный язык.
A line marked with dots -- линия, помеченная точками.	A marked difference -- заметное отличие; A man of marked ability -- человек замечательных способностей.
The tradition continued from generation to generation -- традиция, продолжаемая из поколения в поколение.	A continued tradition -- непрерывная традиция.

Примечание. Причастие II от глагола to involve, стоящее после определяемого им существительного и не сопровождаемое предлогом, переводится: "данный, рассматриваемый, о котором идет речь":

The changes involved took place in the 4th century.
Данные изменения произошли в IV столетии.

Аналогичным образом переводится причастие concerned в таком же положении (после определяемого существительного).

The area concerned was divided into a number of small political units.
Область, о которой идет речь, была разделена на ряд мелких политических единиц.


Упражнения

Сопоставление причастий и прилагательных

1.При переводе определите, чем является форма на -ed, -ing -- причастием или прилагательным.

1. The peoples of the given area divide themselves into the following groups.
2. It is my hope that this book may prove useful to the serious student both through the great number of examples given and through the new theories advanced here and there, more particularly in chapters IV, X, XII and XV.
3. Now we proceed to the more advanced and highly specialized culture of Polynesia.
4. But as civilization increased, and it became necessary to use single languages over wide areas, an immense number of languages spoken only by small and obscure communities became extinct.
5. The relation of the written to the spoken language in English has long attracted the attention of scholars.
6. If we analyse many famous poems admired for their philosophy, we frequently discover mere commonplaces concerning man's mortality or the uncertainty of fate.
7. Another admired example of harakiri is that of a governor of Nagasaki who in 1808 committed a suicide in the approved manner because he was unable to detain and to destroy a British man-of-war (6) which had defied his authority.
8. Speech is a human activity, the product of long continued social usage.
9. Samuel Rogers, one of the few poets undisturbed by the ideas of the French Revolution, belonged more to the eighteenth century than to the new age.
10. The latter part of this period, coinciding with the second half of the sixteenth century, was a very disturbed time in Japan.
11. Among the latter (literary language) we find a decided preference for the tone II in words with unaspirated occlusives.

(6) man-of-war (pl. men-of-war) -- военный корабль


2. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на значения involved и concerned.

1. The influence of the Latin style is seen in the occasional use of long sentences and involved constructions.
2. Let me say for the benefit of those not versed in Semitic philology that the phonetic changes involved in this formula are well established.
3. Each of the parties concerned became interested in the matter.
4. Future investigations may throw more light on this subject, at present involved in doubt and mystery.
5. The task involved in the foregoing classification has been accomplished by intermittent labours extending through more than twenty years of time.
6. Every known plant or animal is given a Latin scientific name to be used throughout the world regardless of the language of the country concerned.
7. Direct links were being established between Soviet and Indian Institutes concerned with questions of microbiology and epidemiology.
8. In chapter VII we recur to the consequences involved by this fact.
9. His (Coleridge's) prose style, often ornate and brilliant, is sometimes, like his thought, rather involved and difficult to follow. 10. After we have defined our terms we may next proceed to a discussion of the processes involved.

3. При переводе обратите внимание на функцию и значение причастия от глагола to follow.

1. Cannon entered Harvard University and in 1896 received his bachelor's degree followed soon by a master's degree.(7)
2. Famine following a bad harvest in those inhospitable climes, sometimes drove whole settlements to seek new lands.
3. Here are portraits of Van Dyck's Flemish period, still following the tradition of the sixteenth-century Netherlandish Portraits.
4. This method is one followed in preparing my book "Intonation Curves" to which readers are referred to for further information.
5. Dickens's next work was Oliver Twist (1838), followed in the next year by Nickolas Nickleby.
6. Byzantine icons belonging to the 11th--12th centuries, the period immediately following the iconoclast movement, are very rare. The Hermitage owns some very good ones.

(7) a bachelor's degree -- степень бакалавра; master's degree -- степень магистра

4. ПРИЧАСТНЫЙ ОБОРОТ В ФУНКЦИИ ОБСТОЯТЕЛЬСТВА

     Обстоятельственные причастные обороты характеризуют сказуемое и отвечают на вопросы: когда?, как?, по какой причине?, при каком условии? и т. п. В функции обстоятельства употребляются все формы причастий.
     Причастие I переводится деепричастием несовершенного вида или обстоятельственным придаточным предложением, время действия которого определяется по времени действия сказуемого:

Demonstrating his finds the archaeologist usually gives a detailed description of the excavation site.
Демонстрируя (когда демонстрирует, при демонстрации) свои находки, археолог всегда дает подробное описание места раскопок.

Demonstrating his new finds the archaeologist gave a detailed description of the excavation site.
Демонстрируя (когда демонстрировал) свои новые находки, археолог дал подробное описание места раскопок.

Being demonstrated at the Institute the new finds produced an impression.
Когда их демонстрировали (будучи показаны, при демонстрации) в институте, новые находки произвели впечатление.

Примечание 1. Причастие I от некоторых глаголов движения и чувственного восприятия имеет значение предшествующего действия и переводится деепричастием совершенного вида:

Arriving at the gallery he paid his shilling and entered.
Приехав на выставку, он заплатил шиллинг и вошел.

Причастие II в функции обстоятельства переводится соответствующим придаточным предложением:

The drama, considered as literature, for almost a century, was dead in England.
Драма, если ее рассматривать как род литературы, почти в течение столетия не существовала в Англии.

П р и м е ч а н и е 2. Причастие II от глаголов to give и to grant -- given и granted -- переводится: "если дано", "если имеется", "при", "в том случае если имеется":

Given certain conditions, such work can be done by anybody.
Если имеются определенные условия, каждый может выполнить такую работу.

Сочетания given that, granted that переводятся: "в том случае если".

Примечание 3. Причастие I following в функции обстоятельства в некоторых случаях переводится: "вслед за", "следом за".
Причастие II followed в этой же функции можно переводить "в сопровождении":

I rushed to the bushes following Peter. Я бросился в кусты вслед за Питером.
She entered the hall followed by her pet-dog. Она вошла в холл в сопровождении собачки.


Упражнение

Переведите предложения, определив форму причастия и тип обстоятельства.

1. Не painted in black and white not being fond of colours.
2. Many of these questions are fundamental to the problem of the collapse of ancient civilization, yet, having raised them, the author left them unanswered.
3. Most people, asked if they can think without speech, would probably answer, "Yes, but it is not easy for us to do so".
4. Blows fell thick and fast until one group, having lost some of its warriors, fled from the field.
5. Deprived of their leaders, the English became disorganized.
6. This letter, having been addressed to the wrong house, never reached my friend.
7. William's (8) ship was in the van, (9) and, being less heavily laden than the transports, outdistanced them du ring the night and appeared alone at dawn off the English coast.
8. Again he asked if the enemy were defeated; and being told that they were, observed: "It is a great satisfaction to me to know that we have beaten the French".
9. Given certain conditions, such work could be done by everybody.
10. His prose essays were written at various times, being as a rule prefixed to his poems and dramas.
11. Being brought to his lodging, the surgeons examined his wound but there was no hope; that very evening he died.
12. Granted different historical conditions, it is quite possible that the official language of Italy today might be a polished Sicilian, or Umbriari, or Bolognese, instead of a polished Tuscan.
13. Taken in this ordinary literary sense this phrase refers only to time, but colloquially it is often used to mean "at any circumstances".
14. These poets developed their particular style so far that they drove from poetry all signs of natural feeling. Thus, following nature without art came art without nature, and following that, a fairly good combination of the two.
15. A cloud of suspicion had gathered about him, and he found it best to flee the country for England, closely followed by eighteen chests of books.
16. Given a minimal nonredundant valuation, as above, we can define a phoneme as a set of segments with identical values.
17. The rains in Egypt begin to fall in March, and being supplemented by the melting of the mountain snows in the following months, occasion a perceptible rise in the river about the end of June.
18. This is an extreme example of a periodic style. It demands close attention; read cursorily, it is hard to understand.
19. Given to the world in 1938 this work was translated into English only twenty years later.
20. Abandoning the study of law, Oliver Holmes graduated in medicine, finishing his course with a two years study in Paris.
21. This hospital was created by Harun-al-Rashid at the beginning of the ninth century, following the Persian model, as its name indicates.
22. Given any specific vocabulary of speech signals, we can calculate the relative importance of each feature for distinguishing the alternative signals and so devise a weighting factor for each channel.

(8)William -- Вильгельм Оранский (Завоеватель), вторгшийся на о. Британию в 1066 г.
(9) to be in the van -- быть впереди, в авангарде (ср. a vanguard).

 

5. ОБСТОЯТЕЛЬСТВЕННЫЕ ПРИЧАСТНЫЕ ОБОРОТЫ
С ПРЕДШЕСТВУЮЩИМИ СОЮЗАМИ

     Причастный оборот в функции обстоятельства может вводиться союзами:

when	в тех случаях когда, когда
while	хотя, несмотря на, в то время как, между тем как, тогда как
if	если
unless	если не, если только
until	до тех пор пока (не)
as	как, когда

 

Союз + причастие I действительного залога

    Такой причастный оборот переводится на русский язык:

- деепричастным оборотом с соответствующей формой причастия (без союза);

- отлагольным существительным с предлогом "при";

- придаточным обстоятельственным предложением, подлежащее которого совпадает с подлежащим главного предложения (оно повторяется или вместо него ставится местоимение), а сказуемое (личная форма глагола) образуется из английского причастия; союз в этом случае сохраняется:

When showing his finds the archaeologist gave a detailed description of the site.

Показывая свои находки, археолог давал подробное описание места раскопок.
При показе (демонстрации) . . .
Когда археолог показывал свои находки, он давал подробное описание места раскопок.

Союз + причастие II страдательного залога

     При переводе таких оборотов необходимо помнить, что причастие II -- это причастие страдательного залога и что подлежащее главного предложения (также совпадающее с субъектом действия оборота) не действует, а подвергается действию, выраженному причастием:

If taken separately these words mean the following. . .
Если их взять отдельно, эти слова означают следующее. . .

     Наибольшую трудность для перевода составляют обороты с причастием II от глаголов, принимающих два дополнения.(10) Оборот с предшествующим союзом, например when shown, может быть переведен: "когда, что-то показали" и "когда кому-то показали"; ср.:

When shown to the experts the manuscript aroused great interest.
Когда рукопись показали специалистам, она вызвала большой интерес.
Рукопись, когда ее показали. . .

When shown that manuscript the scholars became very much interested in it.
Когда ученым показали эту рукопись, они очень заинтересовались ею.

      При переводе необходимо найти подлежащее главного предложения (которое совпадает с субъектом действия оборота) и начинать перевод с него: "рукопись, когда ее показали. . .", "ученые, когда им показали. . .".

(10) Список этих глаголов приведен в разделе "Страдательный залог"

Упражнения

1. Определите формы причастия в следующих предложениях и переведите их на русский язык.

1. If translated into European languages this historical work may prove helpful both to historians and ethnographers.
2. When asked why he had done so he smiled but did not say a word.
3. When sent to the North he took part in the exploration of the tundra.
4. If taken separately the sentence may be rendered in quite a different sense.
5. If sent two copies of this book could you give me one?
6. When reading books we often come across different expressions denoting one and the same notion.
7. This photograph would be missed at once if taken from her.
8. If asked for this book can be found easily.
9. When asked to give an account of your search do not forget to say a few words about your latest find.
10. The conclusion would be hazardous unless supported by further evidence.

2. Переведите предложения, учитывая значение союзов и форму причастия.

1. Не paints the North as he feels it, and I am sure the English Academy-goer (11) would declare, when looking at his pictures, that no such scenes as those represented could be found under the sun.
2. When cleaned and dried, this canoe weighed sixty pounds, and could be transported with the greatest facility by a single individual.
3. In the 18th century when seeking for gold and silver many Europeans went to the newly discovered continent of America.
4. When unaccented all the English vowels tend to become the neutral sound.
5. Any dead fish soon acquires an exceedingly unpleasant smell if left exposed for only a few hours, but the odour of a dead herring becomes twice noticeable.
6. The shells themselves, while showing traces of approaching disintegration, are still in a sound condition, excepting, however, those near the substratum.(12)
7. Books are reserved for readers for two days and if not applied for are returned to the shelves on the morning of the third day.
8. In those days in Japan, the tea was so much a favourite pastime with the feudal lords that they could not do without (13) it even while occupied with military affairs.
9. When struck with a flint, iron pyrites (14) gives a spark, just as steel does. So upper palaeolithic Europeans had discovered the method of fire production.
10. Al-Kindi's principal work on geometrical and physical optics, based on the "Optics" of Euclid, was widely used in both East and West until superseded by the greater work of ibn-al-Haythana.(15)
11. John Cabbot or Giovanni Caboto was a professional navigator and came to England when hired by Henry VII to explore the Atlantic routes.
12. As practised by a master, punctuation has grace.

(11)Academy-goer -- академист.
(12) substratum -- нижний слой.
(13) to do without -- обходиться без.
(14) iron pyrites -- железный колчедан, минерал.
(15) al-Kindi [al'kindi] и ibn-al-Haythana [eelhaitene] --арабские ученые Х в.

 

6. ПРИЧАСТНЫЙ ОБОРОТ В ФУНКЦИИ ВВОДНОГО ЧЛЕНА ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ

     Причастный оборот в качестве вводного члена предложения обычно выражает собственное мнение или высказывание автора. Такой оборот переводится соответствующим русским вводным предложением с союзом "если" или деепричастием. Оборот всегда выделяется запятыми:

Put another way, the conclusion is quite obvious.
Говоря иначе, вывод совершенно очевиден.

Strictly speaking, the author is not right here.
Строго говоря, автор здесь неправ.


Упражнение

Переведите.

1. Turning now to other sources, we come upon groups of words of very various kind.
2. Speaking somewhat inexactly, it may be said, that a language is the product of the thought of a nation, and reflects its corporate character.
3. Rightly understood, it follows that all attempts to connect particular types of linguistic morphology with certain correlated stages of culture development are vain.
4. Coming back to general usage, there is a form of slang which consists of cutting down and abbreviating long words, or using their initials, as when one says "maths" for "mathematics".
5. Broadly considered, words may be divided, according to use, into two great classes.
6. As already observed, the work under consideration (16) is not primarily linguistic in nature and does not introduce new linguistic data.

(16) under consideration -- рассматриваемый, который рассматривается.

7. ОБОРОТЫ "ПРИЧАСТИЕ I + AS IT DOES (DO, DID)" И "ПРИЧАСТИЕ II + AS IT IS (ARE, WAS, WERE)"

     Такой обстоятельственный причастный оборот отделяется запятыми и переводится: "поскольку", "так как", "хоть и. . . (как ни. . .)":
These finds, dealing as they do with the applied art, will be described in detail in the next chapter.
Эти находки, поскольку (так как) они относятся к прикладному искусству, будут подробно описаны в следующей главе.

Упражнение

Переведите предложения, предварительно выделив составные части оборота.

1. Pushkin's heroine, Tatiana, belonging as she did to a provincial family, had no English, though she quite certainly had had a French governess just before the curtain of the romance gently rose.
2. Even Herodotus and Plato, far removed as they are from us in point of time, are immeasurably nearer to Modern Englishmen in all their ideas, sentiments, and moral standards, than the Japanese of fifty years ago.
3. The figure of the heroine herself is decidedly original, differing as it does from all former dramatic conceptions of the "Maid of Orleans".(17)
4. But as a matter of fact, the impression produced by these linked verses is delightful in the extreme, passing as they do before the reader like a series of dissolving views, vague, graceful, and suggestive.
5. This monument is not well placed. Standing as it does in the bend of Broadway, where the tide of traffic surges about it, and having for a background a jagged range of sky-scrapers, the monument does not show to advantage from any point of view.
6. The tragical History of Dr. Faustus is his masterpiece, containing as it does, passages of poetry which even Shakespeare has not excelled.(18)
7. This work was published in 1884, and it must have made an instant appeal to Oscar Wilde. The strange character of the hero, founded as it was upon the living original of Count Robert de Montesquieu, must have seemed to the young Englishman the incarnation of his own ideas.
8. As the hot July morning advanced the Crusaders (19) began to doubt whether they could hold out against the ceaseless rain of missiles. But, surrounded as they were, flight was impossible and surrender would mean captivity and slavery.

(17)"The Maid of Orleans" -- "Орлеанская Дева", пьеса Бернарда Шоу.
(18) Речь идет о "Фаусте" К. Марло (1546--1593).
(19) Crusaders -- крестоносцы.

 

8. НЕЗАВИСИМЫЙ ПРИЧАСТНЫЙ ОБОРОТ (АБСОЛЮТНАЯ КОНСТРУКЦИЯ)

     В то время как в обычном (зависимом) причастном обороте субъект действия, выраженного причастием, совпадает с подлежащим предложения, независимый причастный оборот имеет собственный субъект действия, который не совпадает с подлежащим предложения; ср.:

Зависимый причастный оборот	Независимый причастный оборот
Being tired he decided to go to bed.	Не being tired, I decided not to disturb him.
Будучи усталым (так как он устал), он решил лечь спать.	Так как он устал, я решил не тревожить его.

 

     Независимый причастный оборот может выполнять в предложении функции обстоятельства времени, причины и условия. Он всегда отделяется от главного предложения запятой.
     В функции обстоятельства времени и причины оборот переводится придаточным предложением с союзами "так как", "когда", "после того как"; например:

The conference being over, the participants went on an excursion.
Когда (после того как) конференция закончилась, участники поехали на экскурсию.

Their work completed, the secretaries left.
Когда их работа была закончена, секретари ушли.

      В функции обстоятельства сопутствующих условий такой оборот обычно ставится после главного предложения и переводится самостоятельным предложением с союзами "причем", "а", "и", "тогда как"; например:

The figure represents an animal, its total length being two and a half inches.
Фигура изображает животное, причем ее общая длина составляет 2.5 дюйма.

Примечание 1. Перед субъектом действия независимого причастного оборота иногда ставится предлог with. Функции таких оборотов и перевод их на русский язык не отличаются от функций и перевода оборотов основного типа. Предлог with не переводится:

The territory extends for about 150 miles, with a breadth varying from 50 to 100 miles.
Территория простирается на 150 миль, причем ширина ее изменяется от 50 до 100 миль.

Примечание 2. В независимом причастном обороте, начинающемся с There being. . . субъект действия оборота стоит после причастия:

There being nobody in the room, he decided to wait.
Так как в комнате никого не было, он решил подождать.


Упражнения

1. Найдите независимые причастные обороты в следующих предложениях. Переведите предложения.

1. These tribes supported themselves by hunting, elk being obviously the most valuable game: it provided meat, skin, bones,
-- A University was established at Constantinople in 425, teaching being conducted both in Latin and Greek.
-- Hunting being forbidden there, these little islands are a paradise for geese, ducks and snipe,
-- In such conflicts prisoners are never made, the conquerors preferring the heads of their victims to any ransom that could be offered.
-- In the Celtic regions the population is dispersed, each family living separately with the greater part of its fields around it.
-- The deposits in this place are two in number, the larger being situated on the northern side of the creek.
-- The matter of definitions settled, we may begin our consideration of cultural influences.
-- Three quarters of England was last night blanketed by fog and conditions were among the worst of the winter, with ice adding to driver's difficulties.
-- A French warship arriving almost immediately afterwards, the Japanese explained that the man had been killed by a fall from his horse.
-- China was then divided into several kingdoms, each trying to gain the upperhand.(20)
-- With the Romans gone, Britain became a prey to invasion from all sides.
-- Lesser authors have been treated in due proportion, care having been taken not to crowd the book with names, dates, or unimportant details.
-- The works from which to take the samples having been selected, the second question to decide was that of the quality and quantity of the sample, that is, its composition and size.
-- At that time Latin was the language of professional intercourse in Western Europe, the vernaculars being regarded as only fit for the baser purposes of life, and for the conversation of the unlearned.
-- The new instrument (the plough) being usually made entirely of wood till the Iron Age, its history can only be inferred from occasional pictures, or more rarely from ancient field boundaries.

(20) to gain the upperhand -- одержать верх,

2. Найдите субъект действия причастия и определите, чем он выражен. Переведите предложения.

1. My station was in that part of the house which was appropriated for the reception of books, it being my duty to perform the functions of librarian as well as secretary.
2. Salmon, deer, roots and berries are the principal food of natives, these being dried for storage.
3. In general outline the central tumulus may be regarded as quadrangular, if we disregard a slight angle to the south. That taken into account, its form is pentagonal.
4. There being no other choice, they decided to break through.
5. The Normans became the aristocracy in England of that time, and the Saxons the degraded and servile class, the former speaking a dialect of the French language, and the latter holding obstinately by their own expressive tongue.
6. According to this view pottery is an invention made early in man's history at some definite time and place and from that centre of origin all known cases of the use of pottery have been derived, it being unthinkable, according to this view, that such invention could ever have been made twice.
7. Many more of the most precious pictures having had to be moved from the East part of the Museum to the air-conditioned rooms on the West wing, it has been possible to bring up again into the rooms adjoining the dome a considerable number of Italian Renaissance pictures.
8. She (21) is best in her short stories, for in the longer ones she is at times very unequal, there being surprising differences in the worth of both dialogue and character at different places in the same work.
9. The primary purposes for which language is employed being to think clearly and to make oneself understood, most changes made by the general will and collective intelligence are in the direction to secure these ends.(22)
10. In comparative lexicology we constantly see how the things to be represented by words are grouped differently according to the whims of different languages, what is fused together in one being separated in another.
11.The crops being watered by rain and not by irrigation, the plots soon became exhausted. Thereupon the land seeming unlimited, they were (the people) allowed to return to bush, and fresh plots cleared, till eventually, all the easily accessible land having been thus used up, the whole village was shifted to a new site at the centre of a fresh tract of virgin soil.
12. In the development of the Chinese language, there being nothing equivalent to the affixes with which other languages build abstract words, the want was supplied by compound phrases.
13. The Chinese language will undoubtedly be of inestimable importance in the study of comparative linguistics in the future, it being exceptional in very many respects.

(21) Речь идет о Марии Эджворт, ирландской писательнице.
(22)ends -- здесь: цели.

3. Определите тип причастного оборота (зависимый или независимый) и его функцию в предложении. Переведите предложения.

1. There were various novels among them, many being English translations of Italian novels.
2. The other two bronze pieces have been a part of the open work used as antlers,(23) probably in the middle section. They are certainly incomplete, with the upper end missing.
3. Many of the new compounds have come to Chinese by way of Japanese, the Japanese having set themselves earlier than the Chinese to assimilate the teachings of European science.
4. All the city (Madras) to the north of the old fort contains the native quarters, and the business offices of the white men, but the latter live to the south of the fort, their houses standing in large gardens.
5. The origin of several of the names in "Hamlet" having been explained in this section, we may as well note here some of the others.
6. The monkey is regarded by the natives with superstitious reverence, the power of walking erect and talking being ascribed to it, and is esteemed a clever physician.
7. By the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries fur had become Russia's most important single item (24) in foreign and domestic commerce, Russian furs being prominent in the markets of both Europe and China.

(23) antlers -- оленьи рога или украшение в виде рогов.
(24) single item -- статья (дохода).

 

9. ОБОРОТ "ОБЪЕКТНЫЙ ПАДЕЖ С ПРИЧАСТИЕМ" (ПРИЧАСТИЕ В СЛОЖНОМ ДОПОЛНЕНИИ)

     Подобно обороту "объектный падеж с инфинитивом" оборот "объектный падеж с причастием" представляет собой сложное дополнение, которое в данном случае состоит из существительного в общем падеже или местоимения в объектном падеже и причастия. В этой конструкции действие обозначается причастием, а субъектом его является существительное или местоимение. Такой оборот в функции дополнения следует после ряда определенных глаголов, употребленных в качестве сказуемого главного предложения, а именно: глаголов чувственного восприятия (например, to see, feel, hear), глаголов to find, expect, show и близких им по значению, а также глаголов принуждения (to make, to cause).
     Оборот "объектный падеж с причастием" переводится на русский язык дополнительным придаточным предложением с союзами "как", "что".
     В том случае, если оборот образован с причастием I, сказуемое дополнительного придаточного предложения следует переводить глаголом несовершенного вида:

I happened to look back and saw the men getting in and the car starting.
Я случайно обернулся и увидел, как люди входили в машину и как машина отъезжала.

      В случае оборота с причастием II время сказуемого в дополнительном придаточном предложении согласуется с временем сказуемого в главном предложении; ср.:

I often hear his book discussed.
Я часто слышу, как обсуждают его книгу.

I heard my work discussed.
Я слышал, как обсуждали мою работу.

Примечание. Оборот "объектный падеж с причастием" может включать в себя союз as, который ставится перед причастием. Помимо указанного выше способа, такой оборот можно переводить причастием соответствующей формы, опуская или сохраняя при переводе союз:

Не considered these finds as belonging to the 2d millennium.
Он считал, что эти находки относятся ко второму тысячелетию (Он рассматривал эти находки как относящиеся ко второму тысячелетию).


Упражнение

Найдите в следующих предложениях оборот "объектный падеж с причастием". Переведите предложения.

1. We see this complex process of interaction of language and thought actually taking place under our eyes.
2. The sets of ivory panels illustrated the men of Iran bringing in their vassal tribute to the king of Assyria.
3. Sometimes we find the simple present and simple past used instead of future and other compound tenses.
4. Later we find Shakespeare using this style in prose dialogue, sometimes merely in caricature, but at other times quite seriously.
5. The first plays from his hand (Shakespeare's) show him mainly concerned with perfecting his mastery of the instruments of his craft.
6. As far back as (25) the fourth century В. С. we find Hippocrates discussing the influence of climate and concluding that every climate had its inevitable effects on man's life.
7. As men saw the old ideas passing away, the most thoughtful began to formulate and put into writing new principles of social life.
8. He had felt his own interest rising considerably as the train brought him into the West country.
9. We sometimes find a new word formed with a stem, or suffix, or prefix which has no parallel in other words.

(25) as far back as -- еще (уже).

10. ОБОРОТ "ИМЕНИТЕЛЬНЫЙ ПАДЕЖ С ПРИЧАСТИЕМ"
(ПРИЧАСТИЕ В СОСТАВНОМ ГЛАГОЛЬНОМ СКАЗУЕМОМ)

     Рассматриваемый оборот, подобно обороту "именительный с инфинитивом", образуется из подлежащего (существительного или местоимения) и сложного сказуемого, состоящего из глагола типа to consider -- считать, to find -- находить, to show -- показывать в страдательном залоге и причастия I или II:

Не was seen descending the staircase.
Видели, как он спускался с лестницы.

     При переводе глагол в форме страдательного залога выносится вперед в виде неопределенно-личного предложения. За ним следует дополнительное придаточное предложение с союзом "что" (или "как"), сказуемое которого соответствует английскому причастию, а подлежащее - английскому подлежащему. В этом обороте причастию может предшествовать союз. В таком случае помимо указанного перевода возможен и буквальный перевод:

The find was identified as belonging to the 4th century.
Было установлено, что находка относится к IV в. (Находка была определена как относящаяся к IVв.).

Упражнение

Найдите обороты "объектный падеж с причастием" и "именительный падеж с причастием". Переведите предложения.

1. The Chartist movement is generally recognized as occupying an important place not only in Britain but also in international history.
2. We identifyed these ruins as belonging to the Chin Dynasty.
3. The author mentioned Ngoru as having in his time been inundated, though it is now eight miles from the water.
4. It is evident that Greeks peopled untamed nature, the mountains and the forests, with various daemons which were thought of as having half-animal, half-human shape.
5. However one must not consider this distinction as holding good (26) absolutely.
6. The wholesale deforestation of the country by the natives must be reckoned as having had a detrimental effect on the rain-supply.
7. However, he viewed the glottal stop as being one type of vowel onset or release.

(26) to hold good (true) -- иметь силу, действовать, оставаться справедливым

11. ОСОБЕННОСТИ ПЕРЕВОДА ОБОРОТА "ОБЪЕКТНЫЙ ПАДЕЖ С ПРИЧАСТИЕМ II"
ПРИ ГЛАГОЛАХ ТО HAVE И ТО GET

Подлежащее	Сказуемое	Дополнение
Существительное или местоимение.	Личная форма глагола to have или to get.	Существительное или местоимение в объектном падеже + причастие II.

      Употребление глаголов to have и to get с оборотом "объектный падеж+причастие II" означает, что действие производится не подлежащим предложения, а для него или по его распоряжению (приказанию). В одних случаях такой оборот совершенно аналогичен страдательной конструкции, в других -- более четко выступает каузативное значение:

Не had his head shaved so as to appear a genuine monk.
Ему побрили голову, чтобы он выглядел настоящим монахом.
Он велел побрить себе голову. . .
У него была побрита голова. . .

Примечание. В отличие от его употребления в группе перфектных времен глагол to have в этом обороте сохраняет самостоятельное значение времени, т. е I have it done переводится настоящим временем: "мне это делают", в то время как I have done it -- прошедшим временем: "Я это сделал".

Упражнение

Найдите оборот "объектный падеж с причастием II". Переведите предложения.

1. The caliph did not like his new palace: he had the building pulled down and rebuilt.
2. I had all my things stolen in the South of France one year,
3. When I described the stone knives found in China, I had not had yet my attention drawn to the earliest typo of this instrument.
4.Voice is that form of the verb which shows whether what is named by the subject does something or has something done to it.
5. The chief of the tribe had had a large oven dug, which was lit on the morning of the day the feast was to take place.
6. It is well known that some savages fear to have their pictures taken. The portrait is considered as a part of the individual, so that damage to the former will surely involve the latter in misfortune.
7."I'll have this dog poisoned", he said as he fled from the room.
8. He did his best to have the entire collection transferred to the Bibliotheque du Roi in Paris, but after fruitless negotiation with the canons, the plan was dropped.
9. The gluttonous (in the pictures of hell) were having their tongues and middles burned.
10. She bought the picture and had it hung in her bedchamber in Paris.
11. The only way of overcoming this difficulty was to have the answer brought to us by a special messenger.
12. When King Alfred (27) wrote and got his assistants to write his translations from Latin, he was writing a literary language which in many respects differed from the specially West-Saxon spoken language.
13. Shaftsbury had been plotting to have Monmouth acknowledged as heir to the throne.
14. After the volumes were thus refurbished, he had them encased in a special binding of wooden covers with a leather back.
15. Thou wouldest (28) fancy that the whole nation are physicians, for the first question they ask me is, how I do. I have this question put me above a hundred times a day.
16. Philip (29) had the Pope's bulls or letters publicly burnt and finally, in September 1303, he had the Pope seized and imprisoned.

(27) King Alfred -- Альфред (849--901), король Англии, известный своими сочинениями и просветительской деятельностью.
(28) Thou wouldest -- местоимение 2-го л. ед. ч., вышедшее из употребления, и согласованная с ним форма 2-го л. ед. ч. от глагола, тоже устаревшая.
(29) Philip --- Филипп IV Красивый (1268--1314) король Франции.

12. НЕСООТНЕСЕННЫЙ С ПОДЛЕЖАЩИМ ПРИЧАСТНЫЙ ОБОРОТ

     Это - причастный оборот, по внешнему виду совпадающий с зависимым обстоятельственным оборотом и отделяемый от главного предложения запятой, но имеющий собственный субъект действия, который не совпадает с подлежащим главного предложения. Субъект действия такого оборота определяется из предварительного контекста или из притяжательного местоимения, входящего в состав главного предложения как определение к подлежащему. Переводится такой оборот самостоятельным предложением, в котором субъект действия является подлежащим, а причастие -- сказуемым или обстоятельственным придаточным:

Dying at the age of 86 in 1930, his work is varied and impressive.
Он умер в 1930 г. в возрасте 86 лет, и его творчество разнообразно и выразительно.

Повторение причастий и причастных оборотов

Упражнение

Переведите.

1. Most of the tongues spoken today are very young indeed, having appeared within the last two thousand years. Many of them, however, were probably spoken long before, but simply did not get into the written form.
2. Forbidden by his father to take part in the fight, he was discontented, and mixing with the crowd of spectators, had followed after. Though a child, he was a born soldier, and when he saw his father slain he too fell fighting on the same battlefield, leaving a name behind.
3. There were occasions when the Dutch were permitted to cross the bridge, but they were guarded closely and remained effectively isolated, being allowed to do little more than thank the Japanese for their many favours.
4. As printed, each sentence is divided into a number of words, and it is a general belief that a spoken sentence consists of a number of separate sounds.
5. Performances given in our country by actors from different countries have testified to the great cultural advances being made by the countries concerned.
6."You and he came here a week before me", - Here you refers to the person spoken to; he refers to some person spoken of, whose name has been mentioned in a previous sentence; me refers to the person speaking without naming him. So all these words are pronouns.
7. He accepted it as established that the Melanesian languages were legitimate members of the Austronesian family.
8. Across Tolland Sand we had our first view of Polperro, one of the quaintest and picturesque villages I have ever seen. Built on a rocky and steep valley, its houses push each other down along narrow streets to the sea with its boats and fishermen and screaming gulls.
9. In Finland until modern times the only literary language known was the foreign language, Swedish, used by the upper classes, the Finnish language spoken by the mass of the people being looked down.
10.The heroine's rough peasant speech, is, for instance, perfectly in keeping with(30) her character as presented at the beginning of the play.
11. Speaking somewhat inexactly, it may be said that language is the product of the thought of a nation.
12. The cultural layers and relics such as bricks, coins and other remains found in the vicinity, enabled us to identify the draining system as having been constructed at the latest during the Chin Dynasty.
13. Semantic criteria can obviously be stated for all the functions along the lines already followed for negation, conjunction and alteration.
14. He (Robert Southey) was also a good prose writer, the best known of his prose works being "The Life of Nelson".
15. Arnold Zweig had scarcely any vision left and must have everything read to him.
16. New words are best learned in an inductive way, i. e. when found applied, when seen in their proper surroundings.
17. Some modern scholars think of the Anglo-Saxons as being substantially one people, while others adhere to the distinction drawn between the Angles and the Saxons.
18. She heard him coming up the stairs slowly, as if he were carrying something heavy.
19. Asked what changes had taken place in the life in the country he replied that a comparison between the last two years would suffice to throw light on this question.
20. Charing Gross is an open space to the South of Trafalgar Square; here until removed by Parliament during the Civil War (1647) stood Eleanor' Cross, a Gothic monument, erected in 1291 by Edward I, the Bloody Conqueror and oppressor of Wales and Scotland.
21. The basic masculine garment was a chiton, of which there were two distinct styles, the Doric and the Ionic, each of these being subject to (31) sundry variations.
22. The medieval school libraries in London have been neglected to a considerable extent. In many cases, there has been no librarian, except, perhaps, a honorary one, he being a member of the teaching staff, and the books have been dealt with in a fashion not deemed likely to make the collection as valuable to staff or students as it might be.
23. Neither title is good enough for this play - the first having a slightly academic tang about it, and the second seems reminiscent of a non-very-important second- feature film.
24. The coffee drunk in the famous coffee-houses of that period was imported by the East India Company.
25. In several African languages the words meaning "tomorrow" and "yesterday" are often identical, the particular meaning required being decided upon by the "Tense" of the verb used in the context.
26. Geographically, the term "West Africa" covers an area of about three million square miles, extending as it does to include the coastal lands from Senegal to the Cameroons.
27. As already observed, the work under consideration(32) is not primarily linguistic in nature and does not introduce new linguistic data.
28. The position of this man being one of great responsibility and honour, he naturally became the subject of observation to all the numerous members of this great household.
29. The port referred to was also used as an arsenal and as a convict settlement.
30. The ancient inhabitants of the British Islands spoke a language similar to Welsh, and only a few of their words, and these chiefly geographical, remain in the language now spoken by the English people.
31. Laws of every Southern State were framed so as to make provisions for this "legal relationship" between master and slave which was inherently fallacious in that it defied the very essence of Christianity accepting as it did the fact that there were two types of human being -- the master type and the slave type.
32."The vision of Don Roderick" is a poem on Spain when invaded by the Moors, when at her greatest in the sixteenth century, and during the Peninsular War.
33. In each case he (the white man) is regarded as clothed in white cloth or paint, as having arrived from the East and as having a beard.
34. Music and maps are consulted in the two reading rooms, rare and valuable items being reserved for consultation in the North library.
35. The people of France, threatened in their national independence, have rallied in a common front to maintain their liberties and to make their country free, strong and happy.
36. But as civilization increased, and it became necessary to use single languages over wide areas, an immense number of languages spoken only by small and obscure communitees became extinct -- a process which we can observe going on still.
37. Although it is sometimes said that speakers of two different English dialects cannot understand each other, it is doubtful whether such a statement is ever really true, given intelligence, patience and cooperation in both speaker and hearer.
38. The northern end of the great sand-dune, spoken of as lying between the cape and the town, has in its progress inland buried from view several hundred feet of deposit near its southeastern limits.
39. Confined to a narrow strip of coast and isolated from the Mediterranean by its position outside of the strait of Gibraltar, it was natural that Portugal should turn its attention to the navigation at the Atlantic.
40 The heavy blocks of pyramids and temples in civilized Egypt had been dragged in the place up to specially constructed ramps by brute human labour-power unaided by any mechanical devices.
41. Faced with conflicting dialect forms for the same words, Caxton (33) admitted that he was disturbed. He disapproved of such variety, attributing it naively to the variable English temperament.
42. Burns brought to perfection the poetry of song and ballad which Allan Ramsey had begun, and which was continued in Scotland throughout the eighteenth century, being especially capably handled by Robert Fergusson whom Burns acknowledged as his master.
43. The novel is written partly in stage dialogue, with the name of the speaker preceding the words in the way a play is printed, and partly in narrative.
44. Bernard Shaw was brought up in an atmosphere of musical culture, his mother being intensely fond of music.
45. The bow and the stern (of the boat) were both pointed, and not unlike in their general outlines, the latter being more blunt than the former.
46. To the East Constantinople is closely linked with the coastal fringe of Asia Minor, the city being in reality as much a part of Asia as of Europe.
47 When writing about some strange South Sea culture, there is the persistent difficulty of translating strange native ideas into English.
48 The paragraph given below, it will be noticed, is one sentence. Observe the minute care given to the punctuation, the aptness of the epithet, and the rhythm, which in several places is so regular that the matter can be scanned like poetry.
49. Given this marked ethnographic similarity between Palaeolithic man and primitive peoples of the present -- it appears very possible that various funeral customs were practised during the late Paleolithic in the same region and by the same people.
50.The carving was evidently intended to represent a fish, with some peculiar ideas of the artist added and several important characters left out.

30 in keeping with -- в соответствии с
31 to be subject to -- подвергаться, быть подверженным чему-то.
32 under consideration -- рассматриваемый
33 Caxton -- Кэкстон (1492), первый английский книгопечатник