ИНФИНИТИВ И ИНФИНИТИВНЫЕ ОБОРОТЫ

1. ФОРМЫ ИНФИНИТИВА И ИХ ЗНАЧЕНИЕ

     В английском языке имеется четыре формы инфинитива, которые соответствуют четырем группам времен: Infinitive Indefinite, Infinitive Continuous, Infinitive Perfect и Infinitive Perfect Continuous. Инфинитивы Indefinite и Perfect имеют, кроме того, форму страдательного залога.

     В научной литературе наиболее употребительны формы Indefinite и Perfect действительного и страдательного залога.
     Перевод каждой формы инфинитива в отдельности затруднителен, а иногда и просто невозможен, так как полное соответствие в русском языке имеют только формы tо read --- читать и to be read -- быть прочитанным (читаемым). Однако и эти формы не всегда могут быть переведены инфинитивом. Точные видовременные значения сложных форм инфинитива полностью выявляются лишь в контексте.
Частица to, почти постоянно предшествующая инфинитиву, может служить удобным признаком для отыскания его в предложении, например, в тех случаях, когда инфинитив по форме совпадает с существительным или прилагательным, например; experiment -- to experiment (эксперимент -- экспериментировать); fashion--to fashion (вид, форма -- придавать форму).
     В ряде случаев, однако, инфинитив употребляется без to:
1) после модальных и вспомогательных глаголов must, can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, need, dare;
2) в обороте "объектный падеж с инфинитивом" после глаголов чувства и восприятия
(например: I heard him speak. -- Я слышал как он говорит);
3) после сочетаний had better -- лучше бы, would rather (sooner) -- предпочел бы
(например: You had better begin now. -- Начните лучше сейчас);
4) после глаголов to let -- разрешать, позволять, давать и to make -- заставлять
(например: Let me pass, please. -- Позвольте мне пройти, пожалуйста;
It made him laugh. -- Это заставило его рассмеяться).

2. ФУНКЦИИ ИНФИНИТИВА В ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИИ

     Инфинитив в предложении может быть подлежащим, обстоятельством, определением, дополнением, а также входить как составная часть в сказуемое -- именное и глагольное. Будучи частью сложного дополнения, инфинитив образует оборот "объектный падеж с инфинитивом", а с предлогом for -- инфинитивный оборот "for-phrase". Инфинитив может входить в состав сложного сказуемого, образуя оборот "именительный падеж с инфинитивом", а также употребляться как вводный член предложения.


Инфинитив в функции подлежащего.

Инфинитив является подлежащим, если стоит в начале предложения, отвечает на вопрос "что?, что делать?", а непосредственно за подлежащим или за относящимися к нему словами следует сказуемое:

То understand this author is not easy.
Понять этого автора нелегко.

Инфинитив в функции подлежащего переводится инфинитивом или соответствующим отглагольным существительным:

To accomplish this work requires great skill.
Выполнение этой работы требует большого уменья.

Примечание. Если подлежащее выражено инфинитивом, а сказуемое глаголом-связкой to be + инфинитив, то связка переводится "значит, означает":
То help him is to help all of us.
Помочь ему значит помочь всем нам.

Упражнение

Переведите предложения. Обратите внимание на перевод инфинитива-подлежащего.

1. То define the varieties of English prose style is the purpose of the chapters that follow.
2. To preserve a literary tradition under these circumstances was doubly difficult, and it was not preserved.
3. Mary Stuart was detained in various castles for almost twenty years, since to have restored her to her throne by force was impossible politically and to have handed her over to the Scots for execution unthinkable treachery.
4. To say that mind does not exist in abstraction from body is not, however, to say that mental processes do not exist.
5. To have overburdened the book with so many details would tire the reader.
6. To render easy the movement of modern prose, to vary its structure so that it shall not be monotonous, to add to its natural perspicuity an exactness which shall be unequivocal, demand great care and skill from an author.
7. The second, more serious objection still remains: the system of writing cannot adequately express the whole range of human thought; and to do so even partially will require thousands of characters.

Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели и следствия.

Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели отвечает на вопрос "для чего?, для какой цели?". Он расположен в начале или в конце предложения и иногда вводится союзами in order (to) -- чтобы, для того чтобы; so as (to) -- с тем чтобы:

Не has gone to England (in order) to perfect his knowledge of English.
Он поехал в Англию, для того чтобы совершенствовать свои знания английского языка.

Не stood up so as to see better.
Он встал, чтобы лучше видеть.

     Если инфинитив стоит в начале предложения, то непосредственно за ним или за относящимися к нему словами должно стоять подлежащее предложения:

То understand this author better you should read all his earlier works.
Для того чтобы лучше понять этого писателя, вам следует прочесть все его более ранние произведения.


Упражнение

Переведите.

1. То supply the needs of the new civilization a vast increase of vocabulary became necessary.
2. The natives cast about their shoulders a rectangular cape so as to keep off the cold or merely for the sake of (1) elegance.
3. To think about the world we must first perceive the world.
4. In order to grasp the full meaning of a work of art we need to know a great deal (2) more about the sources of its theme and style than can be learned by the merely aesthetic approach.
5. To prevent the soil from being seized again by a few landowners and to allow for the growth of population, a redistribution of the fields was to take place every six years.
6. It would seem a truism that to be a linguist (scientific or otherwise) one must first learn to speak many languages.

(1) for the sake of -- ради, для.
(2) a great deal -- много; здесь: значительно, намного.

Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства следствия

обычно стоит в конце предложения. Характерным признаком его служат наречия (too -- слишком, enough, sufficiently -- достаточно), расположенные перед прилагательным или наречием, за которыми следует инфинитив с частицей to.
      Инфинитив следствия переводится союзом "чтобы" с последующим инфинитивом. Все предложение нередко приобретает модальное значение возможности (или невозможности), которое в русском языке выражается употреблением слов "можно", "может" и т. п.:

The finds are too few to be spoken about.
Находок слишком мало, чтобы о них (можно было) говорить.

Инфинитив следствия может также вводиться союзом as с предшествующими наречиями so или such:

The rule has been so formulated as to be easily observed by everybody.
Правило было сформулировано таким образом, чтобы все могли легко его соблюдать.

Примечание. Инфинитив следствия от глаголов to form, tо give, to yield и to make переводится деепричастием:

All these conditions combine to make the problem very complicated.
Все эти условия сочетаются (объединяются), делая эту проблему очень сложной.

Упражнение

Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод инфинитива. Найдите признаки инфинитива функции обстоятельства следствия

1. The resemblance is almost too close to be accidental.
2. Most of the population of these islands are farmers, but they do not grow enough to feed themselves.
3. In British Isles all the lakes are of fresh water, and all bodies of water large enough to be called lakes are connected with the sea by means of rivers.
4. Italians, whether soldiers or (3) civilians, were too few to leave any lasting physical trace on the population of the country they invaded.
5. Too little is as yet (4) known of the origin of the Far Eastern peoples to enable us to determine accurately all the racial connections of the Japanese.

(3) whether . , . or --- независимо от того. . . ли; будь то. . ., или ...
(4) as yet -- до сих пор, пока.

Инфинитив в функции вводного члена предложения.

Инфинитив -- вводный член предложения обычно расположен в начале или в середине предложения и отделяется запятой или другим знаком. Инфинитив -- вводный член предложения, как правило, переводится: деепричастием с относящимися к нему словами и инфинитивным оборотом, начинающимся с "если":

То sum up, we can say that . . .
Подводя итог, мы можем сказать, что. . .
Если подвести итог, то можно сказать, что. . .

Часто такой инфинитив представляет собой уже застывшее выражение:

То put it another way, . . . Иными словами,. . .

В функции вводного члена предложения наиболее употребительны следующие сочетания с инфинитивом:

to anticipate -- забегая вперед
to begin with -- прежде всего; начнем
с того, что; для начала
to enumerate -- если перечислить
to generalize -- обобщая, если обобщить
to judge from -- судя по, если судить по
to make a long story short -- короче говоря to mention -- если упомянуть
not to mention -- не упоминая
to name -- если назвать (упомянуть)
to put it another way -- иначе говоря, иными словами
to put it briefly -- короче говоря
to put it mildly -- мягко выражаясь
to put it more exactly -- точнее говоря to put it simply -- попросту говоря
to quote -- если привести, приведем
to return -- возвращаясь, если возвратиться
to say nothing of -- не говоря уже о
needless to say -- не имеет смысла говорить, нет смысла
suffice it to say -- достаточно сказать
so to say -- так сказать
to sum up -- подводя итог, если под-
вести итог to tell the truth -- по правде говоря
to take an example -- если привести пример, например
to use -- если употребить, употребляя


Упражнение

Переведите предложения, подобрав в списке соответствующие сочетания с инфинитивом.

1. A great household (such as Shakespeare depicts in Twelfth Night or Lear) might consist of several hundred persons -- family, dependants, expert officials -- to say nothing of the scores of guests and neighbours.
2. To put the matter in another way, word-symbols possess the power of absorbing the meaning of the surrounding context, which can then be discarded without appreciable loss.
3. To return to our play, it is evident that "Phedre" (5) is the ideal type of a baroque tragedy, not only by its style, but by its basic conception.
4. To begin with, the concept of related languages was strikingly confirmed by the existence in far-off India, of a sister of the familiar languages of Europe (Sanscrit).
5. To pass now from the outer form of words to their inner meaning, there is again so much that is common to all mankind, that we cannot be surprised to find a number of correspondencies between languages widely apart.
6. The harbours of Nagasaki and Yokohama, to mention only two, are the most convenient.

(5) "Phedre" -- "Федра", трагедия Расина.


Инфинитив в функции определения.

      Инфинитив в функции определения следует за определяемым словом (обычно это существительное), имеет форму действительного или страдательного залога и отвечает на вопрос "какой?". В русском языке инфинитиву в функции определения соответствует определительное придаточное предложение, начинающееся словами "который", "кто".
     Инфинитив в функции определения чаще всего имеет модальный оттенок необходимости, возможности или приобретает значение будущего времени и переводится с добавлением слов "необходимо", "следует", "можно (нельзя)" или глаголом в будущем времени:

This is the main difficulty to be taken into consideration.
Это -- основная трудность, которую нужно учитывать.

This is a rule not to be forgotten.
Это -- правило, которое не следует (нельзя) забывать.

Here is the text to be read by us next time.
Вот текст, который мы будем читать в следующий раз.

      Инфинитив в функции определения может стоять после порядкового числительного (the first, the third и т. п.), после слов типа the last, the next, the only или после сочетания подобных слов с существительным. В таких случаях модальный оттенок необходимости, возможности или значение будущего времени отсутствует. Время сказуемого в определительном придаточном предложении в большинстве случаев зависит от времени сказуемого в главном предложении:

Не was the first to pay attention to this peculiarity.
Он был первым, кто обратил внимание на эту особенность
(Он первый обратил внимание на эту особенность).

It was the first theatre to be opened in England.
Это был первый театр, открытый (который был открыт) в Англии.

At that period of time he was the only scientist to support this theory.
В тот период он был единственным ученым, который поддерживал (поддерживавшим) эту теорию.

Упражнение

Переведите. Обратите внимание на наличие или отсутствие оттенка модальности. Объясните это явление.

1. The earliest tablets to be discovered were of the native wood.
2. These printed lists contain material not to be found elsewhere.
3. The last problem to be considered is that dealing with the tablets.
4. The first European (Magellan) ever to sail across the wide Pacific was curious about the hidden worlds beneath his ship.
5. The choice of the road to be taken was not difficult. The Army was moving northwards.
6. Kyushu was the first island to be greatly affected by intercourse with Europe in the sixteenth century.
7. Evidently our power of making this comparison depends upon our knowledge of the things to be compared.
8. The Globe playhouse was opened in 1599, and it has been thought probable that "Julius Caesar" was the first Shakespeare play to be presented there.
9. It will be seen that while the idealist explanation tries to relate the phenomenon to be explained to some spiritual cause, the materialist explanation relates it to material causes.
10. Did human beings always possess the power of speech? If not, when and how did they acquire it? Are human beings the only ones to have it?
11. Moreover, it was not the classics themselves, as much as the works of Italy and France above mentioned, which had so important an influence on the poets to be presently considered, particularly on Chaucer.(6)
12. Turning from the correspondences to be found in the archaic parts of the vocabulary to the structure and contents of Modern English, we find that a very great change has taken place.
13. Only a few men in all the history of the world have had the experience of descending, alive, beyond the range of visible light (into the ocean). The first to do so were William Beeb and Otis Barton (1934).
14. Under a strange sky, where there was none to render us aid, we tossed about over the sea.
15. I suppose that there is more education to be had from that remark than from an hour's reading of Ovid.
16. The first foreign language and English word count to appear based on a scientific foundation was that of Henrnon in 1924.

(6) Chaucer -- Чосер (1340--1400), английский поэт. 34


Инфинитив в составном именном сказуемом.

Составное именное сказуемое образуется глаголом to be, употребляемым во всех временах Indefinite и Perfect изъявительного и сослагательного наклонения в сочетании с инфинитивом с частицей to.

to b e + t о + Infinitive

Our task was to prove this hypothesis.
Наша задача состояла в том, чтобы доказать это предположение.

Глагол-связка to be переводится "состоять в том, чтобы (что)", "заключаться в том, чтобы (что)".
В настоящем времени связка иногда не переводится:

Our task is to prove it.
Наша задача -- доказать это.

Если подлежащее предложения выражено инфинитивом, то глагол-связка, как правило, переводится "значит, означает":

То reproduce a phenomenon is to prove it.
Воспроизвести явление значит (означает) доказать его.


Упражнение

При переводе обратите внимание на время глагола-связки to be.

1. Our aim was to include all pertinent information that came to our attention up to October, 31, 1951.
2. The first business of grammar, as of every other science, is to observe the facts and phenomena with which it has to deal; and to classify and state them methodically.
3. A first step in stylistic analysis will be to observe such deviations as the repetitions of sounds, the inversion of word order and some others.
4. Their method of conquest was to make military roads and to plant along them forts garrisoned by the regular troops.
5. My concern here has been to show that a significant difference separates these two types of Comedy.
6. The object of this little book is to explain by examples how the different parts of speech are used and to show from their uses how they should be defined.
7. To assign all the words of English to their original sources is not to determine the mode of their entrance into English.
8. The method of reading was, according to N., to read one row from left to right, then come hack reading the next from right to left.
9. In so far as (7) a foreign language coincides with the native tongue, to study one is to study another.
10. The function of this staff is to maintain the service of books to readers, to assist in finding books and to give advice in problems of research or bibliography.
11. Our task in this case would be to find the original picture.

(7) in so far as - поскольку, насколько


Инфинитив в составном модальном сказуемом.

     Модальное составное сказуемое образуется модальным глаголом (must, can, may, need, should, ought и др.) в сочетании с инфинитивом как с частицей to, так и без нее.
must, can, may, should+инфинитив to have, to be, ought + to + инфинитив.

Употребление модальных и близких им по значению глаголов с инфинитивом

Упражнения

1. При переводе обратите особое внимание на модальные или близкие им по значению глаголы, а также на форму инфинитива.

1. The conference was to take place in London.
2. You will have to overcome many difficulties in your work.
3. They were compelled to agree with us.
4. Your friend may not know that we are here.
5. You ought to know this author.
6. Where are these books to be had?
7. Tell him he need not be in a hurry.
8. You must have heard of him. He is one of the best singers in France.
9. We are obliged to let him know about it.
10. He must have forgotten my address.
11. The faults of this work are hardly to be denied.
12. This must be the book you were telling me about.
13. This unpleasant meeting is not to be avoided.
14. I felt that something is bound to happen very soon.
15. He may have forgotten about it.
16. Nobody was to be seen at the station.
17. He ought to have foreseen it.
18. You should have been born a hundred years ago.
19. He drew the plan of the building more skillfully than any one else could have done it.

2. При переводе обратите внимание на точное значение модального глагола.

1. If, in the sixty years after 1789, England was to have a revolution on the French model, most Englishmen believed that it would begin in Manchester.
2. The slave-owners in Puerto-Rico were obliged to render a monthly report of the number of slaves who fled to the mountains.
3. The adventurist policy of these countries was bound to result in (8) bankruptcy.
4. As the Suez route (9) was yet to be opened, the ship had to circumnavigate half of the globe before reaching the Pacific Ocean.
5. These brave people were compelled to fight for every inch of soil.
6. It is also to be noted that in the inscriptions and written documents of this period we frequently find in one country forms and words that were later to become distinctive of the other sections.
7. Such flower as this is not to be found in this vicinity.
8. The reader should keep in mind (10) the marked distinction between the two (11) processes.
9."The world is not to be comprehended as a complex of ready-made things", wrote Engels, "but as a complex of processes in which things apparently stable, go through an uninterrupted change of coming into being (12) and passing away".
10. Rousseau, (13) in his Contrat Sociale and Emile (1760--1762) had first formulated those ideas which were to shake the foundations of European society.
11. For his lord's sake (14) the retainer was bound not only to lay down his own life cheerfully, but to sacrifice the life and honour of those nearest to him.
12. This sonnet and the one quoted above need, in fact, to be considered together.
13. An unfortunate outgrowth of the general-grammar idea was the belief that the grammarian or lexicographer can ascertain the logical basis of language and prescribe how people ought to speak.
14. The origin of this art, so far as technique is concerned, (15) is to be traced back to the tomb painting of Graeco- Roman Egypt.
15. In 1820 Keats was compelled to seek warmer skies, and died in Rome early in the next year, at the age of twenty- five.
16. The new text bears many affinities with treaties of the second millenium В. С.(16) In this way it should further the understanding of this type of literature, which is common to the whole of Ancient Near East.
17. Dickens died on 9 June 1870, and before the end of the year some half-dozen biographies had been published, none of which need be consulted now.
18. Near the wall we unearthed building foundations on 12 sites, discoveries of which led to much discussion among our members. Some of us believe that the foundations uncovered may be the remains of those palaces, but this will have to be further substantiated.
19. Henry VIII (1509--1547) was the first king since Henry V who did not have to fight a battle to win or keep his throne.
20. A similar origin should probably be assigned to the extensive accumulations of sand, clay and fine gravel which are to be found on the coast of Alicante.

(8) to result in -- приводить к ...
(9) The Suez route -- Суэцкий канал.
(10) to keep in mind -- учитывать, иметь в виду.
(11) the two -- оба, обе.
(12) to come into being -- возникать, появляться.
(13) Rousseau [ruso:] -- Руссо, Жан-Жак.
(14) for somebody's sake -- ради (для) кого-то.
(15) so far as ... is concerned -- постольку, поскольку речь идет о ...
(16) В. С. (Before Christ) -- до нашей эры.


Сопоставление сочетания "to bе + инфинитив" в различных функциях

1. Переведите предложения, предварительно определив функцию сочетания "to be + инфинитив".

1. The opposite view is to deny any philosophic relevance to literature.
2. A series of events took place which within a few years was to work a transformation in the island kingdom.
3. These tales lack the artistic beauty of expression and of imagery which are to be found everywhere in his greater poems.
4. A second, not contradictory approach, is to study the sum of individual traits by which this system differs from comparable systems.
5. The change which was to come over English poetry, and the new style which was to dominate that poetry for more than a century, owes its inception to this great poet.
6. Dickens was for a time editor of the London and Westminster Review, and his purely literary efforts in the essay are not to be ignored.
7. With the longer poems (of Shelley) went a brilliant cascade of shorter lyrical pieces. To name them is to mention some of the sweetest English lyrics.
8. The aim of the dialectical method is to enable us logically and consistently to express the real interconnection and motion of things.
9. The mural paintings are by no means to be found in all the caves inhabited during the Glacial Epoch.
10. The great achievement in the cultural field was the creation of a department of archaeology, whose function it was to preserve the monuments of Indian art and by excavations, to discover more of them.
11. This serious problem is not to be disposed of so lightly.

2. При переводе обратите внимание на сочетания модального глагола с инфинитивом.

1. The process of creating a language must have been a very slow and painful one, stretching out over thousands, perhaps millions of years.
2. Actually tools of this kind may have served a number of purposes, like the sailor's pocket-knife.
3. Now the cave differs little from how it must have looked in 1947 when it was first discovered.
4. It is easy to understand that the geologic events of the Glacial Epoch should have had far-reaching effects upon the earth's surface.
5. A few additional factors of geographical character which may also have exercised and influence on artistic developments of one sort or another may also be noted.
6. The dictionary shows that the number of words which may have originated in this way is very large.
7. Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries must have been a fearsome chaos of warring tribes and kingdoms.
8. Some finds suggest that the first edition of London bridge may have been erected in timber before the Roman Conquest. (17)

(17) The Roman Conquest -- Римское завоевание; завоевание о. Британии римскими легионами в 43 г. до н. э.


Инфинитив в составном сказуемом с глаголами, характеризующими действие.

Из глаголов, характеризующих действие, наиболее употребительны следующие:

to be going + to + инфинитив -- намереваться, собираться сделать что-л.

I am going to speak to him.
Я собираюсь поговорить с ним.

This time-table is going to be changed soon.
Это расписание скоро переменят.

to be about+to + инфинитив -- собраться что-л. делать, начал было.

The train was about to start. . .
Поезд уже трогался. . .

He was about to answer, but at that moment. . .
Он, было, начал отвечать, но в этот момент. . .
Он готов был ответить, но. . .
Он собрался ответить, но. ...

Примечание. Предлог about в сочетании с инфинитивом может употребляться в качестве определения:

We were about to consider this problem. Мы собирались рассмотреть этот вопрос.

The problem about to be considered Вопрос, который собираются рассматривать, Вопрос, который будет рассмотрен здесь, . . .


to go, to tend + to + инфинитив -- стремиться, иметь тенденцию к осуществлению какого-л. действия: быть склонным.

The author tends to show that. . .
Автор склонен считать, что. . .

Примечание. Эти глаголы чаще всего употребляются для избежания категоричности стиля изложения и в переводе могут быть опущены:
All this goes to show that. . . Все это показывает, что. . .

to come + to + инфинитив -- начать (стать) что-л. делать, а также переводится глаголом с приставками "по-", "за-".

I have come to understand it only now.
Я стал (начал) понимать это только теперь.

We came to love him. Мы полюбили его.

to manage+to+инфинитив -- суметь, смочь, ухитриться, удаваться что-л. сделать.

Не managed to overcome this difficulty.
Ему удалось (он сумел) преодолеть эту трудность,

to fail + to + инфинитив -- не смочь, не суметь, не удаваться, не быть в состоянии что-л. сделать.

The author failed to show this difference.
Автору не удалось показать это различие.

Примечание 1. Если существительное или местоимение, стоящее перед глаголом to fail, обозначает не лицо, то инфинитив смыслового глагола переводится с отрицательным значением:

These facts, however, fail to explain the cause of the process.
Однако эти факты не объясняют причину процесса.

Примечание 2. Существительное failure в сочетании с инфинитивом переводится: неспособность что-л. сделать, либо существительным с отрицательной приставкой:

Failure to realize this fact . . .
Неспособность понять этот факт. . . Непонимание этого факта. . . .

Примечание 3. Сочетание "cannot fail + инфинитив" переводится: не может не . . .; сочетание "could not fail + инфинитив" -- не мог не ... Также переводятся сочетания "cannot but, could not but + инфинитив":

He could not fail to be influenced by this great painter.
Он не мог не оказаться под влиянием этого великого художника.


used+to+инфинитив -- иметь обыкновение (обычно) при прошедшем времени:

I used to write with this pen last year.
Я (обычно) писал этой ручкой в прошлом году.

would + инфинитив -- иметь обыкновение (бывало) при описаниях в прошедшем времени.
She would sit at the window for hours.
Она, бывало, часами сидела у окна. Она имела обыкновение. . . Она просиживала. . . .

Для характеристики действия употребляются также и некоторые другие глаголы, например:

to set out+to+Infinitive -- намереваться;
to be wont+to+Infinitive -- иметь обыкновение;
to cease+to+Infinitive -- перестать;
to go on + to + Infinitive -- продолжать.


Упражнения

1. Дайте точный перевод составного сказуемого.

I

1. As the Cave Four material flowed in, it became clear that its bulk was going to surpass by far anything found in the first Gave.
2. Goethe had come to know a bookseller, Fromann by name, with whose family and friends he found it pleasant to discuss art and literature.
3. Much to our surprise the seats for the first concert were sold out in advance. But as I was about to appear on the stage, the lights suddenly went out, leaving the audience in complete darkness.
4. Being a typical denizen of Russia, where the slow agricultural tempo prevailed, Goncharov could not but be struck by the pace of life he found in England.
5. Great respect was paid (in Old English times) to the art of alliterative verse, and it was a matter at least for private shame to have to leave the feast (as Cadmon at first was wont to do) before the harp was reaching you because you were unable to sing.
6. Sinan (the ancient Arabian doctor) organized a staff of physicians who would go from place to place carrying drugs and administering relief to ailing people.
7. However, with all his deep sympathy with suffering in any shape or form, the author has somehow failed to reproduce these feelings in his work . . .
8. The statues which came from the quarry -- to be described later -- used to stand on a platform about a yard and a half across at the top of the parapet.
9. Athens,(18) though still a centre of philosophical study and thought, had ceased to be of any direct importance at that time.
10. The art of picture writing later was developed to a high degree by some American Indian tribes, who would inscribe on the bark of trees complete pictorial histories of their expeditions.
11. The force of this conclusion will be apparent in the following chapter when we come to discuss the problem of invention.
12. Then, when that cave was explored, the party would have to move on to another, perhaps hundreds of feet above or below, and start afresh.
13. This kind of attitude goes to show that certain quarters in the West are not interested in an early settlement of the issue.
14. As time passed, most of the land that was reclaimed on the frontiers gradually came to be held by a few lords. As the nation grew, these reclaimed lands eventually formed the larger part of its area. Then as a reward for service or because of some special influence at court, individuals would be given estates to hand down to their descendants.
15. Then it became clear that ten thousands of pounds were going to be required to save this fabulous library.
16. A year later (1887), Andre Antoine, an amateur actor, founded Le Theatre Libre in Paris for the production of new plays which failed to attract the Commercial Theatre managers.
17. The business of which he was a director was about tо crash.
18. I never managed to get there, although I spent some time in one or two of neighbouring countries.
19. The wooded hills, the infinite variety of mountain valley, of lake and harbour and sea, could not have failed tо develop in some of those people a sense of the artistic.

(18) Athens -- Афины.


II

20. This chapter sets out to describe characteristics of English which are not included in the previous nine chapters.
21. By the middle of the nineteenth century the nation was ripe for change. Rumours of dissatisfaction and unrest were beginning to be heard. Some revolution was seemingly about to take place.
22. This region does not consist of large, smoky industrial towns such as one finds in the West of England, but of widely scattered market towns in which the wooden industry has managed to survive.
23. In my own country -- Sweden -- the house snake was extremely common, and only a few years ago there died a farmer of whom I know that he was wont to offer milk to the house snakes.
24. Sergey Gorodetsky writes that Khlebnikov would give his manuscripts to anyone who wanted them.
25. The author traces briefly the history of Japanese poetry in the Nara period, and then goes on to speak of the more recent poets.
26. Hugh (19) sent an embassy of twenty four knights to inform the governor that he was about to arrive and repeat his demand for a suitable reception.

(19) Hugh ['hju:] -- Гуг, имя рыцаря-крестоносца.

2. При переводе обратите внимание на значение глагола to fail +инфинитив и существительного failure + инфинитив.

1. The knight now attempted to unsheath the sword in his belt, but his arm failed to obey his will, and he fell to the ground.
2. Wilde's (20) theory of life was not a deep one, and his plays are consequently a little artificial, and, as before mentioned, fail especially in character-drawing.
3. The stone artifacts (21) fail to show any consistency pattern of fracturing and could easily have been produced by one or more natural forces.
4. He (Dickens) sometimes failed as an artist, but the greater part of his work is sound in this respect.
5. Failure to realize this fact has led to many extravagant claims made by some enthusiasts.
6. These studies could not fail to throw light upon many an aspect of history and archaeology, but their im mediate interest lay in what they told about human speech.
7. After his failure to relieve Nicae (22) the sultan had withdrawn eastward to gather his own force and to conclude peace and alliance with the Emir.
8. No one, examining the evidence of Greek failure, cultural and social-political, can fail to perceive how closely the two aspects are interwoven.

(20) Wilde -- Оскар Уайлд.
(21) artifacts -- предметы, изделия.
(22) Nicae -- Никея, город.


3. При переводе обратите внимание на значения глагола to use+инфинитив в зависимости от выполняемой им функции.

1. The men used to wear nothing but a wide belt of beaten bark.
2. The pictures which the Egyptians used to record events and to express ideas are called hyeroglyphics.
3. The children used to like sliding down the sides of volcanoes on tobbogans.
4. Once all ships used to come up the river to the ancient city, but now no ship whatever comes, and the tradesmen have gone away, and their wooden dwellings have been pulled down.
5. The same tendency to use the novel as a means of instruction or admonition has been used of late years by many authors.
6. When capitalism was still a progressive force, bourgeois thinkers used to believe that people could know more and more about the real world, and so control natural forces.
7. The signs used to indicate the tones are the very simple ones.




Инфинитив в функции второго дополнения.
      После некоторых глаголов в английском следуют два прямых дополнения; одно из них выражается существительным или местоимением, второе -- инфинитивом. Чаще всего такие конструкции переводятся придаточным дополнительным предложением с союзами "что", "чтобы".
Два прямых дополнения обычно принимают следующие глаголы:

Примечание 1.
Инфинитив после глаголов to make и to have употребляется без частицы to:

We made Mm return. Мы заставили его вернуться.

Если глагол to make употребляется в страдательном залоге, то после него инфинитив употребляется с частицей to:

Не was made to return. Его заставили вернуться.

Примечание 2.
Глагол to cause + дополнение (не лицо) + инфинитив страдательного залога переводится "служить (быть) причиной того, что . . .":

The earthquake caused these layers to be removed.
Землетрясение послужило причиной того, что эти слои сдвинулись (сместились).

Примечание 3.
Глагол to allow + дополнение + инфинитив страдательного залога переводится "позволить (разрешить)" + русский инфинитив действительного залога+дополнение:

The chief of the expedition allowed the tents to be set up on the slope.
Начальник экспедиции разрешил поставить палатки на склоне.

Глагол to enable + дополнение + инфинитив страдательного залога переводится таким же образом:

This enabled all the corrections to be made in time.
Это дало возможность сделать все поправки вовремя.


Упражнение

При переводе обратите внимание на глаголы, стоящие перед инфинитивом.

I

1. Esarhaddon, in accordance with Assyrian custom made the suppliants pay dearly for the help given them, for tribute and takes were imposed on their cities.
2. The American Indians, particularly the Plain Tribes, had a system of gestures or sign-language that enabled members of different tribes, speaking totally different languages, to communicate with one another, and also with the white man,
3. His acts of violence had caused him to be bitterly hated by the natives who surrounded him.
4. Between the Coral islands in the Tuamotu Archipelago, Magellan ordered his sounding line to be lowered.
5. The use of the Chinese written characters, which required a different sign for each word, was made easier by introducing signs for syllables. This helped to make the written language conform more nearly to everyday speech.
6. The alteration of the position of the accent had caused another change in pronounciation to take place, namely, the change of the vowel into [э] in the second syllable.
7. In this part of the tool there is an irregularly made hole of a size large enough to allow a strong cord to pass through for the purpose of suspension.
8. Some opponents of that school would have us believe that the historical studies were simply disguised theorising.
9. The warm climate and the mild temperature of this part of the country caused man in Early Palaeolithic time, to prefer stations in the open, and so he encamped on the lower slopes of hills, or on the sandy shores of rivers.
10. This author unites the Basque in one group with the African and the Semitic languages, making the Caucasian languages to form a second branch.

II

11. This porosity, added to the unbroken violence of the winds, makes all the trees planted on the island lead so hard a life; the only chance for them is huddling together.
12. In as far as (23) this text will help to an increased understanding of the relation between king and people and of the political thought of the Assyrians, it will enable the debt owed them by succeeding civilization to be more clearly appreciated.
13. The greatest contribution of Coleridge's Shakespearian criticism is his continual insistence that every work of art must be judged by its own organic laws. If this sometimes led him to explain away Shakespeare's faults or to ascribe them to another hand, it also led him to recognize qualities which earlier critics had missed.
14. In this part of the land it is the universal practice to allow the land to lie fallow for at least two years after a single crop has been raised, while crops are raised from other lands.
15. Like many other hypersensitive children, this boy could not, or would not, bring himself to ask for those books, and his conscience prevented him from reading them on the sly.(24)
16. At the same time maritime importance of the Dutch caused a great many Dutch nautical terms and other Dutch words to be borrowed by English.
17. Madness of jealousy in Othello causes its possessor to destroy the woman who represents everything in the world for him.
18. He loved to perform such experiments as the one in which liquids of various colours are made to form different layers in a single vessel.
19. Most specimens were either carved or impressed with characters giving the name of a place or person, leading us to believe they were produced in professional workshops.
20. When the king heard that the awful dragon was outside his very gates, demanding food, he had his servants give the beast two sheep a day (a legend).
21. It is said that in 1219 Bishop Richard Poore ordered an arrow to be shot from the heights of Old Sarum and where it fell ho built Salisbury Cathedral as we see it now.

(23) in as far as -- поскольку, настолько
(24) on the sly -- исподтишка, тайком

3. ИНФИНИТИВНЫЕ ОБОРОТЫ

Инфинитивный оборот, вводимый предлогом for (for-phrase).

В этом обороте предлог for + существительное в общем падеже или местоимение в объектном падеже и инфинитив с to образуют единое смысловое целое, где инфинитив выражает действие, субъектом которого является существительное или местоимение.

for                      + smth/smb                   + to + инфинитив

For                          the man                           to enter
For                        everybody                         to see
              (субъект действия инфинитива)

     Такие обороты переводятся на русский язык придаточным предложением, подлежащим которого становится субъект действия, а сказуемым -- инфинитив. Тип придаточного предложения зависит от функции, выполняемой оборотом в предложении. Чаще всего оборот употребляется в функции обстоятельства. В таком случае придаточное предложение вводится союзом "чтобы (для того, чтобы)":

For this material to be published this year you must have it typed as soon as possible.
Для того чтобы этот материал был опубликован в этом году, вам нужно как можно скорее перепечатать его на машинке.

     Оборот с for выступает также в функции других членов предложения:

There isn't enough time for the material to be published this year.
Недостаточно времени для того, чтобы материал был опубликован в этом году (обстоятельство следствия).

It is quite possible for this material to be published very soon.
Вполне возможно, что этот материал будет очень скоро опубликован (часть составного сказуемого).

The main problem is for this material to be published as soon as possible.
Основная задача состоит в том, чтобы этот материал был как можно скорее опубликован (именная часть сказуемого).

Не asked for the documents to be sent to him by post.
Он просил, чтобы ему переслали документы почтой (прямое дополнение).

The only conclusion for him to draw was the following.
Единственный вывод, который он мог сделать, был следующий (определение).

For his thesis to be published this year is out of the question.
He может быть и речи о том, чтобы его диссертация была опубликована в этом году (подлежащее).

     Если оборот выступает как часть составного модального сказуемого, то в русском переводе добавляются слова "должен", "следует":

This is for the reader to judge. Об этом должен судить читатель.


Упражнение

Обратите внимание на перевод оборота "for+существительное + инфинитив".

1. It is possible for a word to consist of only one sound, as when you say "a" in "a house".
2. Arrangements were also made for large numbers of books to be made available in that reading-room.
3. He examined the problem and decided that the only solution was for him to return to the order of his old life.
4. When the Heathen king of Kent Ethelbert, heard of Augustin's landing with some forty companions he sent orders for them not to move off Thanet.
5. Suddenly the painter appeared at the door of the studio, and made signs for the visitors to come in.
6. It is less easy for a common language to make its way in a country like Germany which for centuries was politically subdivided and which had no capital.
7. Here, it seems to me, is another very obvious and vital point (25) for a specialist to explain.
8. It is well known, for example, that with people who have often discussed some subject together a few words are enough for them mutually to understand some very complex point, which it would take many words for them to explain to an outsider.
9. It must be almost unheard of for a play to be performed at separate places under completely different titles.
10. For tattooing to be perfect when the subject(26) reached adulthood, it had to be started early, generally at the age of eight.
11. The really important conclusion for us to reach is that chance has played an extraordinary part in the survival of the written and graphic evidence of the period under investigation(27).
12. The normal way in which culture continues is for one generation of a society to transmit its culture to the next generation.
13. I also believe that the general system and terminology indicated briefly in chapter I has enabled to state many grammatical facts more clearly than has hitherto been possible. But of this is for others to judge.
14. Though in natural circumstances each race retains its own language, it is possible for a people to abandon its own tongue and to take another, and it is also possible for foreigners to be absorbed in large numbers without any perceptible effect upon the speech.
15. But the exceptions here are too numerous for any rule to be stated.
16. Even in the second century trade was not sufficiently organized for the rural hamlets to be supplied with raw iron from centralized foundries.
17. It is impossible for an author, and it would be impossible for the whole body of writers, to alter at will the prevalent type of sentence-articulation.
18. However, for any empirical data to contribute much to an understanding of a complex phenomenon like the learning of a second language, they need to be related to a fairly comprehensive formulation of theory.

(25) point - здесь - вопрос
(26) subject -- человек, член племени.
(27) under investigation -- исследуемый.


Оборот "объектный падеж с инфинитивом" (инфинитив в сложном дополнении - Complex Object).

Оборот "объектный падеж с инфинитивом" употребляется после определенных глаголов и представляет собой сложное дополнение, состоящее из существительного в общем падеже или местоимения в объектном падеже и инфинитива. Инфинитив обозначает действие, а существительное или местоимение -- субъект этого действия:

I wish my sister to help me.
Я хочу, чтобы моя сестра помогла мне.

I saw him get off the bus.
Я видел, как он вышел из автобуса.


     Оборот "объектный падеж с инфинитивом" переводится дополнительным придаточным предложением с союзами "что", "чтобы", "как". При переводе существительное или местоимение становится подлежащим, а инфинитив -- сказуемым русского придаточного предложения.
     При переводе следует обращать внимание на форму предшествующего глагола и на форму самого инфинитива.
Infinitive Indefinite переводится глаголом в настоящем или прошедшем времени, Infinitive Perfect -- прошедшем временем глагола.
     После глаголов to expect, to hope инфинитив в большинстве случаев переводится будущим временем:

We expect this book to appear on sale very soon.
Мы ожидаем, что эта книга очень скоро появится в продаже.

С оборотом "объектный падеж с инфинитивом" употребляются следующие глаголы:

to desire --- желать, хотеть
to expect -- ожидать, предполагать
to hate -- очень не хотеть
to hold -- считать
to intend -- предполагать
to imagine -- воображать, представлять себе
to like -- нравиться, любить
to judge -- считать
to mean -- полагать
to know -- знать
should (would) like -- хотел бы
to prove -- доказывать, показывать
to want -- хотеть
to reckon -- считать
to wish -- желать, хотеть
to suppose -- предполагать
to assume -- считать, полагать
to show -- показывать
to believe -- полагать
to think -- думать, полагать
to consider -- считать
to estimate -- считать


После следующих глаголов инфинитив в обороте употребляется без частицы tо:
to feel ----- чувствовать
to hear -- слышать
to notice -- замечать
to observe -- наблюдать
to perceive -- ощущать
to see -- видеть
to watch -- наблюдать


Упражнение

Обратите внимание на перевод оборота объектный падеж с инфинитивом".

                                                       I
1. Historians suppose the name "London" to come from two Celtic words.
2. We sincerely wish good relations to be established between our two countries, -- said one of the delegates.
3. In Middle Ages people believed the earth to be the centre of the Universe.
4. We know Australia to be the only continent situated in the southern hemisphere.
5. First we thought the small island to be uninhabited.
6. Presently we saw him emerge from the station, cross the street and disappear into the building.
7. At the Central Station, from behind a convenient pile of luggage the men watched the train come in.
8. The whole problem is so important that I would like you to go over the facts once more.

                                                        II
9. It was explained that, although several authorities had included the Melanesian languages in the Malay-Polynesian family, Leenhardt thought them to be a separate family.
10. All other indications showed death to have taken place slightly later than the approximate time put in the report.
11. It is a carefully prepared essay which proves its author to be a man of cultivation, taste, imagination, education and refinement.
12. We often hear people complain that the materialists seek to reduce everything in the world, including life and mind, to a system of soulless mechanisms. This refers to mechanistic materialism.
13. Ever since I was a child I have watched and helped the men of my clan make their weapons.
14. That language (German) which in Goethe and his contemporaries had achieved the highest excellence of precision of flexibility, we have seen in our time under the nazis reach the very depths to which a language can possibly descend.
15. Supposing this conjecture to be well-founded, these objects acquire a peculiar interest as representing in a certain degree the actual work of the inhabitants.
16. In short, an examination of the sources of the Modern English vocabulary shows beyond the possibility of contradiction the once prevalent notion that all modern European words were derived from roots equally old, and could be traced back to a single ancestral tongue, to be a mistake induced by a superficial uniformity presented by languages to their speakers.



Оборот "именительный падеж с инфинитивом"
(инфинитив в составном глагольном сказуемом - Complex Subject).

      Оборот "именительный падеж с инфинитивом" образуется из подлежащего (существительного или местоимения) и сложного сказуемого, состоящего из глагола в личной форме и инфинитива.

Подлежащее                                      Сказуемое
a) You                                     seem to know German.
б) The book                        is said to be very interesting.


       Особенность оборота состоит в том, что действие, выражаемое инфинитивом, относится к подлежащему, а стоящий перед ним глагол указывает на отношение к этому действию со стороны говорящего или вообще неуказанного лица.
При переводе на русский язык английское подлежащее переводится подлежащим, инфинитив -- сказуемым, а глагол в личной форме -- неопределенно-личным предложением:

а) Вы, кажется, знаете немецкий язык.
б) Говорят, что книга очень интересная (Книга, как говорят, очень интересная).

      Как и в предыдущем случае, этот оборот употребляется лишь после определенных глаголов. Число глаголов, после которых употребляется оборот, ограничено, и их можно разделить на три группы.

    1. Глаголы, употребляемые в действительном залоге           

     2. Глаголы, употребляемые в страдательном залоге

to believe         - полагать, считать
to say                - говорить
to suppose      - предполагать, полагать
to show             - показывать
to think              - считать, полагать
to report            - сообщать
to consider       - считать
to hold               - считать
to take                - считать   
to announce     - объявлять
to assume         - допускать, предполагать
to state              - утверждать, констатировать
to know             - знать (известно)
to claim             - утверждать, считать
to intend            - иметь в виду, предполагать
to hold               - считать
to mean             - полагать, считать
to suffer             - терпеть, допускать (чтобы)
to expect           - ожидать, полагать, предполагать
to pronounce    - объявлять, провозглашать
to estimate        - подсчитывать
to find                 - обнаруживать, оказываться
to prove (28)       - доказывать
to see                 - видеть
to observe         - наблюдать
to feel                 - чувствовать, ощущать

(28) Значение глагола to prove в обороте зависит от употребления его в действительном или страдательном залоге; ср.:
Не proved to be right. -- Оказалось, что он прав.
Не was proved to be right. -- Доказали (было доказано), что on прав.

     3. Сочетания с глаголом to be:

to be likely          - вероятно, может быть
to be not likely   - маловероятно, не может быть
to be unlikely     - вряд ли, едва ли
to be sure           - конечно, несомненно
to be certain       - наверное, обязательно

При переводе необходимо учитывать время глагола, стоящего перед инфинитивом, ср.:

Не is considered to be . . . Считают, что он. . .
Не was considered to be. . . Считали, что он. . .,

А также необходимо учитывать форму инфинитива. Infinitive Indefinite и Continuous переводится сказуемым в настоящем времени, a Infinitive Perfect и Perfect Continuous -- сказуемым в прошедшем времени; ср.:

Не is said to go to Moscow. Говорят, что он едет в Москву.
Не is said to have gone to Moscow. Говорят, что он уехал в Москву.

Примечание. После глагола to expect (to be likely) инфинитив обычно переводится будущим временем:
Не is expected to come tomorrow. Ожидают, что он приедет завтра.


Упражнение

Переведите, обращая внимание на время глагола и форму инфинитива.

1. Engle, Saxon and Jute are considered to belong to the same Low German branch of the Teutonic family.
2. Historians appear to know but little of his life.
3. In Tacitus chronicles the Germans are reported to be people ploughing their fields.
4."The Jumping Frog" by Mark Twain is said to have pleased its author best of all he wrote in that style.
5. Such places were held to be frequented by evil spirits .
6. The religion of the English is stated to be the same as that of the whole German family.
7. The bulk of the people is said to have dwelt along the middle Elbe and on the Weser.
8. The name of Jutes happens to be still preserved in their district of Jutland.
9. A number of German tribes appears to have drawn together into the people of Saxons. These are known to have made the land between the Elba and the Ems their homeland.
10. The Island of Britain is known, to have been revealed to the Roman world by Julius Caesar in the year 55 В. С.
11. The peoples of all ancient civilizations are known to have made maps.
12. Tiw, the dark God, to meet whom was death, is supposed to have lent his name to Tuesday.
13. Great changes are expected to take place in the economies of these small countries in the near future.
14. Coal has been known to exist in India since 1772, and is said to have been worked as far back as 1775.
15. In 1611 Shakespeare appears to have retired to Stratford for good.(29)
16. Latin was supposed to be the only language worthy of study, and it was studied for a practical end.(30)


Оборот "именительный падеж с инфинитивом" с модальным глаголом. Модальный глагол в этой конструкции обычно переводится неопределенно-личным предложением:

Our story may be said to begin here.
Можно сказать, что наш рассказ начинается здесь.

Can be said -- Можно сказать, что. . .
Cannot be said -- Нельзя сказать, что. . .

(29) for good -- навсегда, совсем.
(30) for. . . end -- c. . . целью.

Упражнение

Переведите, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы и отрицания.

1. As regards (31) the sound of words, we may almost be said to speak one language and to write another.
2. There is one important class of words to which our analysis does not seem to be applicable: proper nouns.
3. These plays cannot be said to represent an unqualified advance.
4. Neither of the parties (32) can be said to have inified or planned their actions.
5. Four departments of the British Museum might justly be considered to constitute the British National Library.
6. The individuality which characterises any tongue may be said to consist of those general features, which distinguish it from other tongues.
7. In this broad sense of the term all the literature of the early nineteenth century may be said to be a product of Romanticism.
8. If this can be shown to be true, it would greatly improve our understanding of the original code.

(31) as regards --- что касается (в начале предложения).
(32) parties -- здесь: (враждующие) стороны.

Оборот "именительный с инфинитивом" в определительном придаточном предложении.
Если оборот стоит в определительном придаточном предложении (которые начинаются словами which, that, who, а также бывают бессоюзными), то инфинитив переводится как сказуемое соответствующего русского определительного придаточного, а глагол в личной форме, стоящий перед инфинитивом, -- как вводное безличное предложение типа: "как известно", "как полагают" и т. тт.:

Then conies a group of ballads which are known to date from the 14th century.
Затем идет ряд баллад, которые, как известно, восходят к XIV столетию.

Оборот "причастие II от глаголов типа to think + инфинитив" и оборот "прилагательное likely+инфинитив". Иногда определительное придаточное предложение отсутствует и инфинитив стоит после причастия II от глаголов указанного типа или слова likely, выполняющих функцию определения. Перевод в этом случае не отличается от перевода определительного придаточного, причем слово likely переводится как вводное "вероятно", а инфинитив после него -- чаще всего сказуемым в будущем времени:

Now let us turn to the words likely to have taken their origin in Latin.
Теперь обратимся к словам, которые, вероятно, произошли из латинского (языка).

Now we shall describe some objects thought to belong to this class.
Теперь опишем некоторые предметы, которые, как полагают, относятся к этому классу.

Упражнение

Переведите.

1. The place of discovery was a hall which appears to have been the king's throne-room.
2. In the fifth century A. D. the one country that is known to have borne the name Angeln or England lay in the district now called Sleswick.
3. By far (33) the greatest of this school of dramatists is Marlow who may well (34) be said to have prepared the way for Shakespeare.
4. All the mental functions and activities which are said to be products of mind as distinct from (35) matter, are products of matter.
5. If details remain in which we disagree, they hardly can affect the general picture of this art that our different works will be found to contain.
6. Such ideas are, however, unscientific. Why? Because they assert that the processes they are supposed to be investigating take place without any cause.


7. This is one of the oldest roads in England, believed indeed to be prehistoric.
8. Cult-objects may also be identified by the peculiar form, known from other sources to belong exclusively to some group of cultic equipment.
9. Japan had the drama, said in its very beginning to have been associated with its religion.
10. The Classical Scholar will appreciate that the civilization, reputed to have furnished Greece with many myths, was very ancient and very real.


(33) by far -- несомненно.
(34) well после may, might -- вполне.
(35) as distinct from -- в отличие от.




Повторение оборота "именительный с инфинитивом"

Переведите предложения с учетом всех особенностей оборота.

1. Human beings seem to have had the power of speech as far back as history can trace them; and animals, while they can make certain limited sounds and at times give them certain limited meanings, cannot be said to possess speech in the same sense that humans possess it.
2. When a book is greatly admired and often read, the language in which it is written is likely to be imitated to some extent by those who read it.
3. Practically, all of this material turns out under careful scrutiny to have not only value in itself, but some relevance to the subject in hand.(36)
4. This reference to Greece must not however, be taken to mean the Greek civilization of historic times, which belonged to a much later period.
5. Very often, even many English-born speakers may be heard to say that they pronounce letters, not sounds.
6. Later, Armenian and Albanese, and a few ancient languages known to us only from scant written records, proved also to belong to the Indo-European family.
7. The date of the original composition of the play cannot be determined. But it is proved to have been acted at Dresden in 1626, and is commonly supposed to date back much further.
8. No modern writer would be likely to write the following.
9. The relative conciseness of Latin has been thought to be shown by the fact that there are fewer words in a Latin sentence than in a normal English translation of it.
10. In order to explain, or rather better to understand the sudden and glorious rise of Elisabethan (37) literature, it is necessary to take a glance at the historical events which preceded it, and which may be said to have done much to make it possible.
11. The Chinese word for "mother", for instance, is "ma", even though Chinese is not supposed to have any connection with the languages of the West.
12. Further investigations along the same lines (38) are likely to produce not only interesting information about the development of Byzantine painting, but also about the history of the whole European theatre.
13. Edward refused to admit baronial claims which were not attested in writing or could not be shown to have operated since the coronation of Richard I in 1190.
14. The Guildhall at Exeter, said to be the oldest municipal building in the country, is well worth a visit.
15. These fragments proved to be parts of a few large tablets.
16. Articles of this description appear to occur in Germany, and a number of specimens derived from the Island of Ru:gen, and thought to belong to this class, were presented for inspection by Mr. R.
17. Books of more lasting interest demand fuller treatment, (39) and the presence of bibliographies, tables and illustrations should be indicated on cards likely to be consulted by research workers.
18. The lake-dwellers of the stone age possessed a species of domestic dog of middle size, which they seem to have much valued, if the fact that it was not used as food, unless in cases of extreme need, warrants such a conclusion.
19. From 1580--1596 appeared the plays which may be said to represent the second stage of the Drama.
20. It is very probable that other deposits of the same nature will be found in the neighbouring territory close to the same ancient lake. This seems to be indicated by the remains of fossil animals recently discovered near Ambrona.
21. The French Revolution, which may be said to have begun with the Fall of the Bastille in 1789, was the outcome of centuries of oppression in France; and the ideas of reform were in the air long before its actual outbreak.

(36) in hand (at, on hand) - рассматриваемой (амер.).
(37) Elisabethan -- периода правления Елизаветы Тюдор (1533 -- 1603).
(38) along . . . the lines -- в направлении, в области
(39) treatment -- обработка в библиотеке.

Повторение инфинитива

Переведите. Определите функции инфинитива в предложении.

1. These conditions are sufficiently homogenious to be grouped together.
2. Sanscrit, the earliest of the Indo-European tongues to make its appearance in written form, definitely displays the pitch-accent (40) pattern.
3. There is a distinction to be made between these classes of words.
4. He was the first English painter to portray his native countryside so sincerely.
5. The second book, to be published shortly, will deal with the history of the national-liberation movement,
6. These writers were no pedants. They were practical men who were accustomed to use their pens for practical purposes, and who wrote to make themselves understood, not to display their cleverness or learning.
7. To begin with, dialectal varieties are as numerous in Tuscany as anywhere else in the peninsula.
8. But the exceptions are too numerous here for any rule to be stated.
9. A name, to be a complete word, must, as the logicians put it, possess both denotation and connotation.
10. It is significant, however, that over most of England and the Lowlands of Scotland the language which came to predominate was English.
11. This ornament is to be found later in the group of Shibe in the Altai.
12. To consider in turn each of the predecessors of Byzantine culture, which did or could affect its development, and to give a general outline of the character of the contribution of each is the aim of this chapter.
13. In 1542, nearly fifty years after Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese reached Japan, the first Europeans to view its shores.
14. A few additional factors of a geographical character which may have exercised an influence on artistic developments of one sort or another may also be noted. ,
15. More curious is the mixture of "literary" and "colloquial" styles, of "high" and "low", to use the eighteenth- century terms.
16. This work was compiled by a learned monk named Dionysios of Fourna, who appears to have lived at the end of the fourteenth century.
17. The vital problem is to examine the premises on which he based his conclusions.
18. Even at the beginning of the seventeenth century the Confucian scholars used to shave their heads like Buddhist priests.
19. It remains, however, for much of this material to be published in an easily accessible form.
20. To his sovereign or lord a man was bound to be faithful, to his parents dutiful, and to his elder brother respectful.
21. The tomb of Shakespeare is in the chancel. A flat stone marks the spot where the bard is buried. There are four lines inscribed on it, said to have been written by himself.
22. The population was divided into a number of different classes: serfs were to be found, and slavery existed.
23. To prepare civil officials, schools were established in the capital and provinces.
24. The only remaining traces of these tribes are pit dwellings and shell mounds, and they must have been in the most primitive stages of culture.
25. The people of this period are supposed to have lived in huts of skins, leaving no traces behind them.
26. In olden days the swordsmen (41) used to travel all over Japan in order to perfect themselves in this art.
27. The essential fault of this work is to be found in the very plan.
28. The captain managed to secure his sextant, but when he went back for his chronometers, the chart-room was too deep in water for him to be able to reach them.
29. A distinction which one might be tempted to make from our material is that between literary and everyday language.
30. The country was torn to pieces, as it were, politically and socially. All over Japan the feudal lords were at war with one another, The masses must have suffered very much.
31. Turning now from prose to poetry, we have to inquire, what are the characteristics of Modern English verse which the nature of the language has permitted or compelled to acquire?
32. The occasions when a Japanese samurai was bound to commit suicide were innumerable.
33. In addition to the local and unimportant peculiarities to be found in the British Isles, many different dialects must be springing up in other parts of the world.
34. My chief object in writing this chapter has been to make the reader realize that language is not exactly what a one-sided occupation with dictionaries and the usual grammars might lead us to think, but a set of habits, of actions, and that each word and each sentence spoken is a complex action on the part of the speaker.
35. Much of the material a biographer ought to consult, moreover, is widely dispersed or difficult of access.
36. As a rule, the poet is believed to be governed by language more than he governs it.
37. To assign all the words of English to their original sources is not to determine the mode of their entrance into English.
38. The dictionary shows that the number of words which may have originated in this way is very large.
39. The attempt is sometimes made to fix laws or rules for correct English in disregard (42) of the fact that the language changes, and that the standard or correct expression cannot be made to depend entirely on the use of an earlier time.
40. All the principal species of animal now raised for food seem to have been domesticated already in the Near East and Europe by societies still in the neolithic stage.
41. The polished stone celt (43) used to be regarded by archaeologists systernatists as the type fossil of the neolithic phase. And it was of course used by most but all(44), neolithic societies, for carpentry, as in mesolithic times.
42. The student may well (45) feel a little disappointed that, after listing as a topic "a survey of the languages of the world", linguistic science turns out to be able to give so little information about so many of them.

(40) pitch-accent -- музыкальное ударение
(41) swordsman -- фехтовальщик.
(42) in disregard -- несмотря на, не принимая во внимание.
(43) celt -- каменное или бронзовое долото (археол.).
(44) most but all -- здесь: едва ли не все.
(45) may well -- вполне может.