ГЕРУНДИЙ
И ГЕРУНДИАЛЬНЫЕ ОБОРОТЫ

1. ГЕРУНДИЙ, ЕГО ФОРМЫ И ОТЛИЧИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРИЗНАКИ

     Герундий - неличная форма глагола, обозначающая действие и сочетающая в себе свойства глагола и существительного. По форме герундий совпадает с причастием I и перфектным причастием.

                                                     Формы герундия

     В отличие от причастия перед герундием в тексте стоит предлог, существительное в притяжательном или общем падеже или притяжательное местоимение:

The author has succeeded in basing his study on sound principles.
Автору удалось основать свое исследование на здравых принципах.

In spite of his being tired we had to disturb him.
Несмотря на то, что он устал, нам пришлось побеспокоить его.

I have been told of your friend's coming soon.
Мне сказали, что ваш друг скоро приедет.

     В отличие от причастия, употребляемого главным образом в функции определения и обстоятельства, герундий может употребляться в функциях подлежащего и дополнения:

Collecting rare books was his favourite occupation.
Коллекционирование редких книг было его любимым занятием (Собирать редкие книги было его любимым делом).

Не likes reading aloud.
Он любит читать вслух

     В том случае если герундий употребляется в функции определения и обстоятельства, перед ним стоит предлог (который никогда не ставится перед причастием):

In studying the inscriptions they applied a new method of deciphering.
При изучении (изучая) надписей они применили новый метод расшифровки.

      Герундий, совпадая по форме с отглагольным существительным на -ing, отличается от последнего следующими признаками.

1) Имеет залоговые различия; ср.:

Не likes showing (Act.) his photographs.
Он любит (ему нравится) показывать свои фотографии.

The child likes being shown (Pass.) pictures.
Ребенку нравится, когда ему показывают картинки (Ребенок любит, чтобы ему показывали картинки).

2) Формы герундия, не имея, как и причастие, самостоятельного значения времени, могут выражать действие, одновременное или предшествующее действию, выраженному сказуемым.

     Герундий Indefinite обычно обозначает действие, одновременное действию, выраженному сказуемым (или будущее по отношению к нему):

I know about his returning from Moscow.
Я знаю о том, что он возвращается из Москвы (Я знаю о его возвращении из Москвы).

     Герундий Perfect обозначает действие, предшествующее действию, выраженному сказуемым:

I know about his having returned from Moscow.
Я знаю о том, что он возвратился из Москвы (Я знаю о его возвращении).

Примечание. После глаголов to excuse, to forgive, to thank, to remember и предлогов on (upon), after герундий Indefinite может иметь значение предшествующего действия по отношению к действию, выраженному сказуемым:

I remember seeing him there.
Я помню, что видел его там.

3) Герундий от переходных глаголов может принимать прямое дополнение (в то время как отглагольное существительное принимает предложное дополнение); ср.:

Writing (Ger.) comedies took all his time.
Писание комедий занимало все его время.

The writing (Verb, n.) of his work occupied seventeen years.
Написание его труда заняло семнадцать лет.

4) В отличие от отглагольного существительного герундий не принимает форму множественного числа, не употребляется с артиклем и определяется наречием, а не прилагательным (как отглагольное существительное).

Герундий можно переводить следующим образом:

1) Инфинитивом:

She stopped answering my letters.
Она перестала отвечать на мои письма.

2) Отглагольным существительным:

After finishing school he went on an expedition.
После окончания школы он поехал в экспедицию.

3) Деепричастием:

In examining the manuscript the historian discovered a curious detail.
Рассматривая рукопись, ученый обнаружил один любопытный факт (подробность).

4) Личной формой глагола в функции сказуемого придаточного предложения, вводимого союзом "что (чтобы)" с предшествующим ему соотнесенным местоимением "то" в соответствующем падеже (тем, что: в том, что. . . и т. п.):

This volume differs from the previous in embracing a wider range of subjects.
Этот том отличается от предыдущего тем, что охватывает более широкий круг вопросов.

2. ФУНКЦИИ ГЕРУНДИЯ В ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИИ

Герундий в функции подлежащего.

Going on expeditions is his favourite occupation.
Поездка в экспедицию -- его любимое дело (Ездить в экспедицию -- его любимое занятие).

His going on an expedition surprised everybody. To, что он поехал (едет) в экспедицию, удивило всех.

Герундий в функции прямого дополнения.

Не likes going on expeditions.
Он любит ездить в экспедицию.

Не hates being asked about it.
Он очень не любит, когда его об этом спрашивают.

I can't find my book: I remember having put it on the table.
Я не могу найти мою книгу: я помню, что положил ее на стол.

      В функции прямого дополнения герундий чаще всего употребляется :

Упражнение

Переведите.

1. We all like listening to his lectures.
2. They started working two days ago.
3. His coming so late seemed strange to everybody.
4. Do you mind closing the door?
5. Do you mind my closing the door?
6. Examining the manuscript through a lense gave interesting results.
7. Excuse my being so late.
8. We regretted our having missed the opening lecture.
9. We regret his not being sent to the conference.
10. There is hardly any person who likes being criticized.
11. Stop asking me about it.
12. It is worth while remembering this rule.
13. These words are worth remembering.
14. I can't help laughing when I think of it.
15. I don't feel like telling them all about our plans.
16. He hates being interrupted.
17. It's no use arguing now.
18. He gave up smoking last year.
19. Your watch wants repairing.
20. It was no good asking him.
21. I prefer speaking to him myself.

Герундий в функции косвенного дополнения.

The archaeologists succeeded in excavating several new sites.
Археологам удалось раскопать несколько новых участков.

В функции косвенного дополнения герундий употребляется:

Упражнения

1. Переведите следующие предложения, стараясь в русском переводе, использовать придаточные предложения.

1. Не insisted on taking part in the conference.
2. He insisted on your taking part in the conference.
3. He insisted on being taken to the concert.
4. I object to your discussing this problem now.
5. We hear of his being appointed secretary.
6. She insisted on a telegram being sent to his mother.
7. I never thought of going there without you.
8. They never complained of the conditions of their work being too hard.
9. We spoke about including her in the list.
10. We spoke about her having been included in the list.
11. Nothing can prevent him from taking this step.
12. I have no objection to your smoking downstairs, but. please refrain from doing so on this floor.
13. I cannot accuse him of being lazy, but still he is rather poor at his English.
14. She took a taxi for fear of missing her train.
15. He is in the habit of getting up very early and waking all his family.

2. Переведите предложения. Определите функцию герундия (подлежащее, прямое или косвенное дополнение).

I
1. Не was always fond of visiting new scenes and observing strange characters and manners.
2. He was educated at Oxford, and devoted himself to the study of medicine, but his weak health prevented him from becoming a physician by profession.
3. Travelling around the above-mentioned African countries I could not help comparing their development with that of Tajikistan.
4. This book aims at acquainting advanced students of English with the language as used by the best masters of contemporary English literature.
5. It is worth noting in this connection that there are at least two kinds of analysis practised by science.
6. In the United States after the October Revolution the volumes of Mrs. Garnett's translations of Chechov kept on appearing, and his influence grew.
7. The Puritans were far from being the earliest among the English colonists of North America.
8. Since then I have thought seriously of writing an article for your magazine myself.
9. Anthropologists have been in the habit of studying man under three rubrics of race, language and culture.
10. They proceeded very cautiously for fear of being caught.
11. All these communities relied mainly on hunting, fowling and fishing.
12. Then as now, sweet potatoes were the staple food. Eyrau (1) complains in one of his letters of having to eat them all day long.
13. The author regrets that the scope of this work precludes him from giving in a popular manner the results that they have obtained.
14. With one or two rare exceptions the novelists of the 19th century never succeeded in drawing convincing men and women of the working class.
15. One of the conclusions is that without language there is no understanding among people, and without understanding there is no chance of their being able to work together.
16. From these examples it is easy to see that climate by itself, is capable of influencing culture.
17. Elizabeth (2) hindered France from giving effective aid to Mary Stuart (2) by threats of an alliance with Spain.
18. Some old inscriptions are found in which the writing instead of always beginning either at the right or the left, runs back and forth.
19. This novel took Goncharov some twenty years to write, during which process he repeatedly kept changing or even eliminating certain portions.

(1) Eyrau -- Эйро, имя путешественника.
(2) Elizabeth -- Елизавета, королева Англии; Mary Stuart -- Мария Стюарт, королева Шотландии

II
20. It is also worth remembering that translating is necessitated not only by differences in the national language of speakers or writers, but also by distance in space and time within a single language.
21. In the early spring of 1959, a field team from the Shensy Institute of Archaeology set out to locate the ancient capital with the object of obtaining a more systematic understanding of the social structure and culture of these times.
22. These strange-looking marks on bricks and tablets of clay or cut on rocks were known to Europeans for many years before anyone succeeded in finding out what they meant.
23. This book hardly explains why three thousand ordinary soldiers, representatives of peasantry, marched into Senate Square in St.-Petersburg on December 14, in an effort to keep Nicholas I from being crowned tsar.
24. In his youth he travelled extensively throughout the Congo area, and he is credited with having brought the art of weaving to the Bushongo from the West.
25. Classical tradition was against mixing prose and verse, or comedy and tragedy in the same play.
26. I did not feel like tramping and there borrowed a boat.
27. The author was furious at being so cruelly ridiculed in the magazine and they were afraid he would leave them for another publisher.
28. Meanwhile a sudden gale sprung up, and in spite of all our efforts we fell gradually to leeward, and were in danger of being sent to the bottom.
29. Long before the development of structural doctrines, scholars like Henry Sweet, Paul Passy, and Otto Yespersen (3) had seen that the fact that people speak in order to communicate, cannot help influencing the nature and evolution of speech sounds.

(3) Генри Свит, Поль Пасси, Отто Есперсен -- известные лингвисты конца XIX--начала XX в.


Герундий в функции определения.

     Обычно употребляется при существительных отвлеченного значения с предлогами of (for, in, on):

His intention of getting this book .
Его намерение (какое?) достать эту книгу .

The proposal for reducing the working week .
Предложение (какое?) об уменьшении рабочей недели.

     Герундий в функции определения переводится инфинитивом, существительным с предшествующим предлогом или придаточным предложением, начинающимся словами: "о том, чтобы", "того, чтобы", "к тому, чтобы" и т. п.


Упражнение

Переведите.

1. Samuel Johnson (4) was born in 1709. As his father was a bookseller, he had early opportunity of becoming well acquainted with books.
2. But there are some other reasons for questioning this theory.
3. It is one of the purposes of this book to try to show some of the difficulties of the novelist in portraying the soul of man.
4. It has been said that the two oldest and greatest inventions of man were the wheel and the art of controlling fire.
5. Lima, the city founded by Pizarro(5), has the reputation of being the handsomest city in South America.
6. Pictographic writing is a true writing, since it is a means of recording language, not just an alternative way of expressing the concepts which language expresses.
7. A considerable number of pictographic writing systems have been developed at different times in different
parts of the world quite independently of one another, so that we have no ground for talking about the "evolution" by man of the art of writing.
8. One almost inevitably arrives at the idea of having a series of signs representing syllables in which each consonant of the language is paired with each vowel.
9. The "Brut" (6) is important because it made known many of the Celtic myths dealing with the history of the land, and also because it showed the possibility of using the Norman-French legends in the English literature.
10. The Pre-Raphaelites (7) also had the advantage of being more fully acquainted with medieval literature, art and thought.
(4) Samuel Johnson -- Самюэль Джонсон (1709--1784), известный английский критик и историк литературы, составитель первого значительного словаря английского языка
(5) Pizarro -- Пизарро, испанский завоеватель Перу в 1532 г.
(6) "Brut" -- "Брут", поэма Лайамона, написанная в 1205 г.
(7) Pre-Raphaelites -- английская школа художников 50-х годов XIX в

Герундий в функции обстоятельства.

      Перед герундием в функции обстоятельства всегда стоит предлог, употребление которого не связано с предшествующим глаголом или существительным. Такой предлог в сочетании с герундием образует обстоятельство времени, причины, цели, образа действия и сопутствующих условий.

Упражнение

Переведите.
         I
1. We shall close this chapter by considering one more type of assimilation.
2. The author shows how a language varies in passing from one social group to another.
3. Upon returning to Reykjavik we had a very interesting interview with Mr Bjarnason.
4. She tore the letter into small pieces without reading it.
5. In discussing the problem they touched upon some very interesting items.
6. He liked to do things without disturbing anyone or being disturbed.
7. In digging into the mounds, the explorers discovered in many of them hearths which furnished a great number of relics.
8. Addison (8) (1672) proceeded to Oxford, and later, on receiving a travelling scholarship, passed four years on the Continent. 9. In selecting this spot as the site for an encampment, the Indians displayed a keen appreciation of its unsurpassed natural advantages.
10. The only safe method is to trace step by step the actual changes that a word has undergone , by examining its existing forms till the earliest is reached.
11. In 1872 Courbet 9 sent two paintings to the Salon, which were rejected on political grounds, without being looked at.
12. The first problem in reviewing the world's languages is to decide what to count a language.
13. The mollusks had evidently been opened by placing them on fire.
14. Henry Mayhew was a journalist and comic dramatist born in 1812 who turned to journalism after running away to sea as a boy and later serving as a clerk in his father's law office.
15. As a result a new school of literature arose, which, without being in sharp contrast with the old, contained some distinctly new elements.

        II
16. Mayhew's work contains valuable facts and statistics that could be gathered only by interviewing hundreds of people and by making elaborate investigations.
17. Thus, in considering the causes of the Second Macedonian War, it is necessary to examine not only the agressive activities of Philip (10) but also the current state of political feeling at Rome.
18. Without going further into detail than the scope of this book permits, it is impossible to exhibit the relationship that the structure of Old English bears to the structure of Latin and Greek.
19. Historical grammar tries to explain the phenomena of a language by tracing them back to their earlier stages in the language.
20. Just as the Romance languages -- Italian, Spanish, French etc. -- are cognate to one another through being independent developments of their parent language Latin, so also English is cognate with Dutch, German, Danish, Swedish, and the other Germanic languages.
21. On taking a few spadefuls of earth, or on examining the walls of the new houses generally built with turf taken from these spots, - one everywhere finds the earth and grass-roots mixed with the bones of animals which the Greenlanders hunt.
22. In presenting the second part of this history of English literature, I should like to give some explanation of a very obvious shortcoming in the first part, viz.,(11) the omission of the last chapter dealing with the poetry.
23. The language develops slowly through a number of epochs, by modifying its vocabulary and grammar. It develops without undergoing sudden and revolutionary changes.
24. The writers of the school of Flaubert and Goncourt complain of the difficulties the artist encounters in trying to reproduce what he sees.
25. A remarkably intelligent lad, who on being spoken to, at once consented to give all the information in his power, told me the following story of his life.

(8)Addison -- Аддисон (1672---1719), английский публицист.
Courbet -- Курбе (1819--1877), французский художник-натуралист, коммунар
(10) Philip -- Филипп II, царь Македонии (382 г, до н. э.)
(11) viz. -- читается: namely -- а именно

3. ГЕРУНДИАЛЬНЫЕ ОБОРОТЫ

      Наибольшую трудность для перевода может представить герундий с группой зависящих от него слов, образующих герундиальный оборот. Существует два типа герундиальных оборотов.

1) предлог + герундий:

I insist on writing the letter immediately.
Я настаиваю на том, чтобы написать письмо сразу.

Субъект действия герундия не указан и может совпадать с подлежащим.

This reference-book differs from the previous in including a greater number of names.
Этот справочник отличается от предыдущего тем, что (он) включает большее количество имен.

2) предлог + притяжательное местоимение или существительное в притяжательном или общем падеже

I insist on his writing the letter immediately.
Я настаиваю на том, чтобы он написал письмо сразу.

Субъект действия герундия не совпадает с подлежащим предложения и выражен притяжательным местоимением (или существительным в притяжательном падеже).

Герундий в таких оборотах переводится личной формой глагола в функции сказуемого придаточного предложения, вводимого союзом "что (чтобы)" с предшествующим ему соотнесенным местоимением "то" в соответствующем падеже (тем, что; в том, что и т. п.), а субъект действия герундия -- подлежащим этого придаточного предложения.
Если субъект действия герундия выражен существительным в притяжательном падеже, то он обычно обозначает лицо
:
I hear about your brother's going abroad.
Я слышал, что ваш брат едет за границу.

Если субъект действия герундия выражен существительным в общем падеже, то герундий имеет форму страдательного залога, так как субъект действия обозначает не лицо и подвергается действию, выраженному герундием:

I insist on the letter being sent immediately.
Я настаиваю на том, чтобы письмо было отослано немедленно.

Герундиальные обороты выполняют в предложении те же функции, что и герундий.


Упражнения

1. Переведите. Найдите герундиальные обороти. Определите, совпадает ли субъект действия герундия с подлежащим предложения.

1. A good speaker, besides choosing appropriate terms from a wide vocabulary, and besides being able to utter his thoughts with fluency, uses correct sounds and employs proper intonation.
2. The volume differs from the previous in embracing a wider range of subjects and in making considerably greater demands on the intelligence and knowledge of the young scholar.
3. In addition to being both creative writer and critic he is also a scholar.
4. Our eighth chapter is devoted to seeing the way in which this classification corresponds to the geologic divisions of Pleistocene time.
5. His output of dramatic work has been great, but it shows every sign of having been thoughtfully and conscientiously carried out.
6. Prosper Merimee realised - as many authors following his example have done since - that prose tales gain in tragic force by not being told with obvious sympathy in the exuberant manner of other Romantics.
7. According to the ancient story, Tantalus was punished for a crime by being made to suffer from thirst and hunger, while water and fruit were seemingly within his reach.
8. Arnold Bennet is interested not in philosophy, but in giving a realistic account of the lives of ordinary people.

2. Переведите. Найдите герундиальные обороты. Определите, чем выражен субъект действия герундия.

1. Even those who by 1905 had recognized Shaw as the outstanding British dramatist of his generation continued for many years to question the likelihood of his taking a permanent place in literature.
2. The question of the transition period is not principally a question of the adoption of a new material -- bone instead of stone, but of the population going over to a new trade.
3. There are many new terms, some of which are in everybody's mouth, and are used by the man in the street without any suspicion crossing his mind of their learned origin.
4. We see that this word is an adjective from its having no ending.
5. This fact is due not so much to the mammoth and rhinoceros becoming gradually scarcer as to the change in the method of hunting.
6. The "Importance of Being Earnest" (1895) (12) is brilliant, but the same fault lies here again in the character- drawing. Any speech in the play might almost be directly transferred from one character to another without the change being noticed.
7. The most important cause of a language splitting into dialects is not purely physical, but want of communication for whatever reason.
8. The fact that stone and silex had been abandoned, is, however, not a sign of technical skill having fallen off.
9. The high quality of style has proved sufficient to give this work a high rank amongst the Japanese classics, and has insured its being handed down to our day as a most esteemed model for the composition in the native Japanese style.
10. Without language there is no understanding among people, and without understanding there is no chance of their being able to work together.
11. Conditions of the time (end of the 18th century) led to the need for quicker communication between the towns, and this naturally led also to the literature being spread more quickly than would have been possible before.
12. This is the main contradiction of capitalism which impedes productive development, and even leads to productive powers being used to destroy nations in warfare, instead of for lightening the labour and increasing the material prosperity of mankind.
13. In view of this practice being frequent among primitive people of the present (end of the 19th century), the above mentioned "Package of bones" from the Grotte de Covillon gains immensely in interest.
14. The distinguished German linguist H. Shuchardt, has in recent years strongly insisted that similarities between different languages need not always depend on the languages being related to one another as French is related to Italian, but in some cases may be due to some element common to mankind; in other words, some phenomena, instead of being historically related may be primordially related.

(12) The "Importance of Being Earnest" -- "Как важно быть серьезным", пьеса Оскара Уайльда

Повторение герундия

Переведите.

1. In some cases I contented myself with giving the bare references without printing the sentences in full.
2. Scientific discoveries affected intellectual life by overthrowing many of the old ideas respecting the world and nature.
3. The historian, according to the critics, sinned against the past by giving it an order and a symmetry which it did not possess. Instead of reliving history, he recreated it.
4. In estimating these poems we should make ourselves aware of the literary situation wherein they were written.
5. The investigation aims at establishing historical results regarding settlement and economic and social life.
6. I am told that he has never wanted to learn Chinese as a language, that he does not speak it and has little interest in hearing it spoken.
7. At the beginning of the period, the poets follow the teaching of Dryden (13) in attending more to the method of expressing their ideal than to the ideas themselves.
8. The exhibition of any genuine passion or of any imagination would have seemed to the cultured gallants of that age a sign of vulgarity. The only quality worth possessing was considered to be "the plain good sense".
9. The novelist can similarly tell a story without laying claim to having witnessed or participated in what he narrates.
10. In presenting the above facts I have had in mind letting the non-assyrologist know what a change the discovery of a few tablets in the Amorita land has brought about.
11. Those who find no intellectual pleasure in reading foreign languages, or perhaps even in trying to read them, must admit that some ability to do so is of practical value.
12. Comparative grammar compares grammatical phenomena of a language with those of the cognate languages, that is, languages which are related to it through having arisen from a common parent language.
13 The very nobles who helped Henry 14 to overcome Richard,(14) because they hoped that by so doing they would further their own advancement, rose against him when he tried to assert his authority over them.
14. He held office of the most important judge in England for four years, and might have held it longer, but that (15) he was accused of taking bribes.
15. These inventions, far from being used for the benefit of mankind, were employed by the priests of Egypt to simulate miracles, and so, by facilitating a pious fraud on the faithful, to assist in the secular struggle of superstition against reason.
16. Primarily synonyms should be studied for the sake of enabling a speaker or a writer to say exactly what he needs.
17. In endeavouring to repeat the blow he (the knight) used such force that his left stirrup-leather broke, and he was on the point of falling from his horse.
18. One can readily understand that for natives the tribute became insufferable and they sought recourse and revenge in waylaying and killing their oppressors.
19. He started by night to escape being seen by anyone.
20. The American School (of linguistics) is like the Prague School in not having a fully elaborated approach to the description of grammatical phenomena.
21. The island is unique in having a sandy shore and is surrounded by an amphitheatre of low hills.
22. Of late years some geologists have declared themselves in favour of admitting the existence of the glacial stages, basing their theory on weighty arguments.
23. On leaving the College H. Wells again took up teaching, but in 1893 ill-health compelled him to leave the profession and turn to literature.
24. We aim at laying down in very rough outlines the principles for a phonemic decipherment of a written text.
25. As Somerset Maugham is difficult to classify either by the literary forms he uses or by the kind of reader he engages, it may be worth while trying another approach.
26. Alfred then took steps to prevent the Danes from ever becoming dangerous again.
27. The Stoics began by asserting the equality of slaves and free men, but they never drew the obvious conclusion that slavery should therefore be abolished.
28. The step from pictographic to syllabic writing is an easy, logical and, it might seem, self-evident one; yet there have been several nations which developed the first without ever proceeding to the second.
29. As will be clear by now, true alphabetic writing consists in having a sign for each sound (technically each phoneme) of the language rather than one for each word or one for each syllable.
30. Man alone has succeeded in impressing his stamp on nature, not only by shifting the plant and animal world from one place to another, but also by so altering the aspect and climate of his dwelling place, and even the plants and animals themselves, that the consequences of his activity can disappear only with the general extinction of the terrestrial globe.
31. About 1814 Scott largely gave up writing poetry and save for short pieces mainly in the novels, wrote no more in verse.
32. For the modern linguist the achievement of his ultimate objective would consist in being able to answer all questions that could be asked about language as a general concept, or about any particular concept.
33. Exeter, the ancient capital of Devonshire, is a lovely city, proud of being the only English town that has been lived in continuously since the time of the Romans.
34. One can only wish that progressive literary criticism in Britain will follow even more bravely the teachings of Lenin about there being two nations in every nation and two cultures in every culture.
35. Still, enough evidence is at hand to support a surmise that the South American Indian languages are of a structure similar to that of the North American ones, and that there is a possibility of some day proving all of them to be related.
36. Northern Chinese having lost all its final stops and converted -m everywhere into -n, obscures this phenomenon to a great extent.
37. Prince Regent married his cousin, Caroline of Brunswick, simply because it offered a prospect of his debts being paid.
38. One of Shaw's earliest plays, "Widowers' Houses" (1892) is in reality a strong attack upon those people who live quietly and comfortably upon unearned income without troubling to inquire how the money is procured.
39. Dunstan had a reputation of being the greatest manager of state affairs of all who lived before the Norman Conquest.
40. If a word refers to some person or thing without giving a name to the person or thing referred to, the word is a pronoun.
41. But when a nation thus speaking a variety of dialects attains a high degree of civilization, that unity and centralization which results in one town becoming the capital, results also in one definite dialect -- generally, of course, that of the capital itself - being used as the general means of communication through the whole territory, especially, as is generally the case, the dialects have already diverged so much from each other that some at least of them are mutually unintelligible.
42. Wayland Smith was a personage known as intimately to our Anglo-Saxon forebears as, say, Robin Hood is known to us. The mention of his name was enough to call up to them stories attached to it without their ever needing to be told.



(13) Dryden -- Джон Драйден (1631--1700), английский поэт.
(14) Henry, Richard -- Генрих IV и Ричард II, английские короли
(15) but that -- если бы не