СВОДНЫЕ УПРАЖНЕНИЯ ПО ОСНОВНЫМ РАЗДЕЛАМ ГРАММАТИКИ

1. Повторение страдательного залога и неличных форм глагола

1. As before noticed, the work of Mr. Wells (1)as a true novelist must really be judged on the work of the period 1900--1909.
2. A knowledge of literature is fostered in the United Kingdom by the schools, colleges and universities of the country, in all of which English literature is taught either as part of a general course or as a special subject.
3. John, king of France, was taken prisoner in battle by Edward, the Black Prince, and brought to England. After remaining there in captivity four years, he was allowed to return to his own country.
4. This tendency to stress nuances of meaning has presumably influenced and been influenced by, the tendency to revolt from a too "logical" conception of language, as mentioned at the beginning of Chapter 5.
5. The principle laid down in the last few paragraphs is not unfrequently sinned against in grammatical literature.
6. The author's imagination, steeped in the realms of medieval chivalry, is perfectly matched by his style, which is simple and effective.
7. It would be absurd for people who can buy iron to continue the manufacture of implements of soft copper. As a matter of fact, its use was given up very soon, wherever intercourse with the whites became habitual.
8. The great forces and objects of nature were given godlike qualities and the spirits of ancestors were worshipped(2),
especially those of the imperial house: religion came to be, in fact, very largely, the spirit and backbone of the royal power.
9. It must of course be borne in mind that from around the end of the third century В. С. these cities had formed a part of the Roman Empire, and they had become to some degree affected by the intrusion of Roman elements in art and culture.
10. The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to all the works listed in general bibliography and the chapter bibliographies, to which the student is referred for anything beyond the outline here offered.
11. Another group that has usually been excluded is that of verbs compounded with prepositions of adverbial force. To have given these even a moderate representation would have increased far beyond the extent contemplated a book that does not aim at being a dictionary.
12. Khlebnikov's friends were convinced that he should not be allowed to do his own proof-reading because he did not know how to read proofs.
13. Modern English poets have been compelled to resort to imperfect forms of rhymes. In this they have been aided by the fact that spelling and pronounciation do not correspond, so that many words which do not rhyme look as if they rhymed.
14. Judging from their primitive form these implements would seem to have served many various purposes, and in most cases to have been grasped in the hand, although it is very possible that some of them may have been fastened to a haft of wood or bark.
15. To pass now from the outer form of words to their inner meaning, there is again so much that is common to all mankind, that we cannot be surprised to find a number of correspondencies between languages widely apart.
16. In the view of this school then, pottery, which may be classed as a simple invention, may well(3) have been invented several times in several places quite independently, and the wide distribution of the trait is to be accounted for, not as a result of diffusion from a single point of origin, but as due to spread from various independent centres.
17. In addition to the local and unimportant peculiarities to be found in the British Isles, many different dialects must be springing up in other parts of the world.
18. The two centuries (1392--1603) that followed were not destined to be peaceful. The habit of disorder had become too firmly fixed during the years of civil strife to be quickly overcome.
19. The Classical Scholar will appreciate that the civilization, reputed to have furnished Greece with many myths, was very ancient and very real.
20. In this way the conception of nature is dominated by the conception of the machine. This domination of the machine over the people who make it, who thereby fail to understand the nature of their own handiwork, has long been manifest in bourgeois science.
21. Burns is one of the world's greatest lyrical poets, and his work in other directions is very little inferior to his lyrical efforts. He began as a love poet, and to a certain extent always remained so, but mankind and nature seem to have interested him greatly, and caused him to write many beautiful poems.
22. Richard the Hunchback was a bad character. It is claimed that he not only murdered Henry VI while he was a captive, but had his own brother, Clarence, who was imprisoned by Edward IV for conspiracy and died mysteriously, drowned in a butt of malmsey.
23. In case it should be wondered what purpose is served by such an analysis, it may be mentioned that the two investigations just mentioned result in a vindication of the law of frequency first propounded by J. B. Estorp in 1916, but nowadays more usually known as Zipf's law, which is of fundamental importance when the detailed construction of machine dictionaries is considered.
24. The central shelf of a special kind of cupboard was used for service and the top displayed silver or pewter likely to be used during the meal.
25.- The Sultana, the daughter of the Emir Shake was received with royal honours at Constantinople, where she was to remain till a message should come from her husband stating where he wished her to join him.
26. In the case of this novel, dealing as it does with events of an age already long past, the writer may have felt that a certain archaism was not inappropriate.
27. There are a number of words found in the most ancient texts which have been claimed as loans from other languages, and these are of peculiar interest, affecting as they do the most fundamental part of the vocabulary and not likely to be again disused with a change of the interests of the people.
28. These Arabs believed Aristotle's works to have represented a complete codification of Greek philosophical lore, as Galen's(4) represented Greek medical lore.
29. And it is quite certain that when, in the first and fifth acts, Shakespeare makes trumpet-blasts and the firing of cannon accompany the healths which are drunk, he must have known that this was a specially Danish custom, and have tried to give his play local colour by introducing it.
30. The first business of grammar as of every other science, is to observe the facts and phenomena with which it has to deal; and to classify and state them methodically.
31. But some credit, too, must be given to the Byzantines(5 ) that accompanied the expedition whose experience in fighting the Turks enabled them to give good advice, and without whose guidance the route across Asia Minor could never have been traced.
32. The interest taken in the past is shown also by the publication of James Macpherson's (6) Ossian which was supposed to be a translation of some Gaelic epic poems, the manuscripts of which the writer alleged he had found.
33.Therefore, once the Roman conquerors had glutted their first rage for plunder, their main effort was to induce their Western subjects to assimilate Latin life in all its aspects.
34. The object of this little book is to explain by examples how the different parts of speech are used and to show from their uses how they should be defined.
35. Finally, we must refer to the assistance to be derived from the study of the oldest poetry. All Chinese poetry is rhymed, blank verse being quite unknown in the language.
36. To begin with, dialectal varieties are as numerous in Tuscany as anywhere else in the Peninsula,(7) and while the divergence between any one of these (Florentine, Luccan, and so forth) and the standard language is less noticeable than is the case with the dialects of most other regions, nevertheless the literary tongue cannot be said to coincide precisely with any one of the Tuscan varieties.
37. This, however, does not seem to me to invalidate the general truth of the theory as here explained.
38. The system followed in indicating the source whence a passage has been taken will, I think, be found sufficiently exact without taking much space.
39. The attempt is sometimes made to fix laws or rules for correct English in disregard of the fact that language changes, and that the standard of correct expression cannot be made to depend entirely on the use of an earlier time.
40. Of all European nations only the Dutch were allowed to continue to send ships to Japan. They were more interested in the profits to be made from the trade than in the spread of their Protestant faith.
41. All the principal species of animals now raised for food seem to have been domesticated already in the Near East and Europe by societies still in the neolithic stage.
42. It is natural, therefore, that the spread of the English language to distant parts of the world should have been accompanied by linguistic changes resulting in the development of new dialects.
43. The principle laid down in the last few paragraphs is not unfrequently sinned against in grammatical literature.
44. These migrations are known to us from linguistic evidence, not historical, but -- except in details -- they are not less certain for that. They are arrived at by the simple but yet perfectly sound process of plotting the present location of languages, proved to be descended from Indo- European, and then surmising what migrations and what point of origin could best account for the present distribution of the languages of the Indo-European family.
45. The description of Kaingang phonemes is to be published in a separate paper. Only a few details of the phonemic structure which are particularly relevant to the discussion of syllable structure are dealt with here.
46. From the various indications it may be gathered that this industry was distributed throughout the deposit of sand -- not uniformly, however, but in several strata, separated from each other by sterile layers. The same seems to have been the case with the fauna, which consists of stag, wild ox, and horse.
47. As will bo clear by now, true alphabetic writing consists in having a sign for each sound (technically each phoneme) of the language rather than one for each word or for each syllable.
48. In the three years or so, eleven of Shaw's plays had been given a total of 701 performances. Among them was the first of his masterpieces, "Man and Superman", the third act of which contains the earliest statement of what he afterwards came to call his religion of Creative Evolution, the main theme of his life-work.
49. Care must be taken, when studying British statistics to note whether they refer to England as defined above, to England and Wales (considered together for many administrative and other purposes), to Great Britain, which comprises England, Wales and Scotland, or the United Kingdom as a whole.
50. The letter "u" in French is given a sound that does not quite correspond to any sound we use in English words.
51. A word to be yours must be learnt by you, and possessing it means reproducing it.
52. When a book is greatly admired and often read, the language in which it is written is likely to be imitated to some extent by those who read it.
53. Later we find Shakespeare using this style in prose dialogue.
54. Taken in their literal sense these terms are either meaningless or at best apply to nothing.
55. The Ainus (8) are spoken of as living in primitive conditions, but "primitive" here may mean merely that, dwelling in remote and unfrequented districts, they preserve ancient customs and social organization quite different from those familiar to us.
56. This, however, does not seem to me to invalidate the general truth of the theory as here explained.
57. It may not be out of place if I give some account of corresponding productions of the former inhabitants of this country, who seem, however, to have preferred in similar imitations the plastic to the graphic mode of execution, all specimens to which I can refer being either pipes, or simply representations in stone or shell, or clay vessels of a fish-form.
58. This specimen appears to be very old, its surface being much corroded and bleached by exposure.
59. In 1956 an Anglo-Saxon site at Yeavering, Northumberland on being excavated revealed a township with four halls each nearly a hundred feet long, two of them having a porch at both ends. Another building appears to have been a pagan temple.
60. Between 4000 and 3000 В. С. some society or societies in Hither Asia made the further discovery that copper is fusible: it becomes liquid when heated and can then be made to assume any desired shape, but on cooling it recovers all the desirable properties of a superior stone. Metallurgy may be said to begin with this discovery.
61. The poem was to have consisted of twelve books, each telling of the adventures of a knight, who should represent a certain virtue.
62. There being neither a stream, nor a river, he had to keep the vegetable beds moist and prevent the sun from burning up the crops.
63. Thirty of the sixty thin volumes of which this work consists are assigned to Japanese stories, the remainder containing tales of Chinese or Indian origin.
64. There has hitherto been no such thing as a real English Grammar. We shall, however, no longer wonder at this circumstance, when we recollect that the Latin grammar was regularly taught in schools several centuries before any attempt was made to introduce the study of the mother tongue: and that even since some attention has been paid to this latter, the study of learned languages still having precedence, our first notions of grammar are necessarily derived from them.
65. In printed form, catalogues or lists can be circulated to the staff and those interested, while in those libraries where discarding is rarely, if ever, resorted to, they frequently indicate the whereabouts of rare material.
66. In this play a priest appears, and informs the audience that he is about to consecrate a new bell for his temple, the former having been long ago removed.
67. In the Scottish capital Burns was enthusiastically received, this reception perhaps giving him hopes which were later to be disappointed.
68. The cultural layers and relics such as bricks, coins and other remains found in the vicinity, enabled us to identify the drainage system as having been constructed at the latest during the Chin Dynasty.9
69. What I mean is that every one of the factors is liable to mislead; exceptions have been noted to every conclusion. I don't want to go into purely technical details, but I may say that this case is similar to most in that the results arrived at are at a compromise of slightly conflicting factors.
70. Latin studied in the schools in the 16 and 17 centuries exerted a powerful influence. Later, however, the emphasis came to be misplaced. Latin came to be understood as an end in itself, its real value was lost sight of.
71. There is no extant relic of this original tongue, which is generally called Aryan.10 It is no more than a theoretic conception. But, having been reached, the conception is useful; for it enables English to be regarded as a speech which has had an uninterrupted history from a time when it was one with Greek and Latin and Celtic and Slavonic and Sanskrit. Growing by slow degrees less and less like them, and receiving in later ages fresh influences from them, it has become so different from them that the similarities are now hard to detect.
72. That morning we had a first view of Polperro, one of the quaintest and picturesque villages I have ever seen. Built on a rocky and steep valley, its houses push each. other down along narrow streets to the sea with its boats and fishermen and screaming gulls.
73. The evidence, such as it is, seems to show that urban life, as understood by the Romans, disappeared; in other words, the decay of the towns, which had begun long before the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, now became complete.
74. Generally speaking, the medieval school libraries in London have been neglected to a considerable extent. In many cases, there has been no librarian, except perhaps an honorary one, he being a member of the teaching staff, and the books have been dealt with in a fashion not deemed likely to make the collection as valuable to staff or students as it might be.
75. There are, indeed, many concrete instances of culture contacts between Byzantium and Persia: there was a very active trade between the two empires, and so far as art was concerned there seems to have been an almost uninterrupted give and take (11) between them, Byzantine influence in Persia being well-nigh as important as Persian influence in Byzantium.
76. The number of words borrowed from foreign languages now surpasses the number of native words, and in place of the complicated system of inflexions possessed by Old English, Modern English has very few inflexions, the relations of words to one another in the sentence being indicated by other means.
77. If a word refers to some person or thing without giving a name to the person or thing referred to, the word is a pronoun.
78. Conditions of the time led to the need for quicker communication between the towns, and this naturally led also to the literature being spread more quickly than would have been possible before.
79. Exeter, the ancient capital of Devonshire, is a lovely city, proud of being the only English town that has been lived in continuously since the time of the Romans.
80. Our eighth chapter is devoted to seeing the way in which classification corresponds to the geologic divisions of Pleistocene time.
81. The reaction against the monotony, the baseness of life in capitalist society of the nineteenth century prevented the novelist from understanding and mastering some of the most interesting aspects of human life in the century.
82. Aided by his two famous lieutenants, he succeeded in bringing most of this tribe into subjection, and even deposed the Shogun,(12) although he was prevented by his descent from assuming this title himself.
83. We cannot keep dividing matter without reaching the stage when further subdivision is impossible.
84. The defects of pronunciation come, without any doubt, from a faulty imitation of the speech of the people around them, partly under the influence of the foreign languages spoken by their parents which through them has affected their children. That this is the case is seen by the fact that the young generation, even where there is no mixture of races succeeds in imitating the language of the country without being affected in the least by their parents' speech.
85. Unfortunately, however, the changed plan has entailed some small inconsistencies and obliged me to include in this volume some material that would have been better placed elsewhere, and I have thus been precluded from showing my own system to the best advantage.
86. To apply their discovery (the technique of making pottery) to the production of vessels these neolithic societies had also to learn the delicate and laborious processes of preparing the clay, building up the vessels slowly by hand, drying them, and finally firing them. Soviet experts have recently examined the finger-prints left by neolithic potters on their vessels; all belonged to women. Hence we may infer that pot-making in the Stone Age was a female craft.
87. Man alone has succeeded in impressing his stamp on nature, not only by shifting the plant and animal world from one place to another, but also by so altering the aspect and climate of his dwelling place, and even plants and animals themselves, that the consequences of his activity can disappear only with the general extinction of the terrestrial globe.
88. The book presents an enormous amount of painstaking work; one cannot but feel regret that shortcomings in material available and in theory applied prevented the work from becoming a successful enterprise.
89. In presenting the above facts I have had in mind letting the non-assyrologist know what a change the discovery of a few tablets in the Amorite land(13) has brought about.
90. Tools of this kind are generally called hand-axes- rather unhappily, since they are ill-adapted for chopping. Indeed, no one knows precisely what they were used for; they might serve for cutting, scrapping, digging, or even throwing. Actually they may have served a number of purposes, like the sailor's pocket-knife. Hence they were not specialized tools.
91. When in 1640 the Portuguese tried to resume trading (with Japan), their messengers were beheaded. To make certain that no disturbing influences would invade the empire, all Japanese were forbidden to leave the country and any one who succeeded in doing so was to be executed on his return.
92. That great adventurer-pirate, admiral, call him what you will -- Sir John Hawkins, kept up the Elizabethan tradition by raiding the Guinea Coast, robbing the Portuguese ships of their slaves, and then trading them in the Spanish possessions in the New World in 1562--1563. For this episode, and similar ones, he gained the approval of the Queen, having the doubtful honour of a coat of arms (14) being granted which featured a chained Negro as his crest.
93. Spanish alone (in Spain and America) is spoken by a far larger number of people than Latin was when the Roman Empire ruled the world, and the same is the case both with French and Italian. There is indeed -- at any rate over great parts of the globe -- an enormous tendency towards one and the same language being spoken by a far larger population than at any earlier time in the world's history.
94. In fine, why did the ancient society, having reached a certain point, stop short in its tracks, and then begin to decay instead of advancing towards a fuller democracy based on an increasing mastery over the forces of nature?
95. In the hope of averting these disasters and saving his people, the reigning king had his son taken away and shut up in a cave.
96. Historical and comparative grammar content themselves with tracing the phenomena of a language -- or of a group or family of cognate languages -- as far back as possible, without attempting to explain the origin of the oldest forms thus arrived at.
97. Of late years some geologists have declared themselves in favour of admitting the existence of three glacial stages, basing their theory on weighty arguments, inasmuch as an equipment of the Gunz Glacial Stage would seem to be lacking in Northern Germany.
98. Pleistocene was short, as geological periods go, and it was also peculiar in having great changes in climate.
99. The use of the Chinese written characters which required a different sign for each word, was made easier by introducing signs for syllables. This reduced the total number of characters to be learned and helped to make the written language conform more nearly to everyday speech than it had in its purely Chinese dress.
100. The wooded hills, the infinite variety of mountain valley, of lake and harbour and sea, could not have failed to develop in some of these people a sense of the artistic.
101. To prevent the soil from being seized again by a few land-owners and to allow for the growth of population, a redistribution of the fields was to take place every six years.
102. The end of the Roman Empire in Britain, as elsewhere, was accompanied by catastrophe and followed by darkness, but the collapse of classical civilization was more like the slow sinking of the soil before the advance of the sea than sudden calamity through fire or earthquake.
103. For the modern linguist, therefore, the achievement of his ultimate objective would consist in being able to answer all questions that could be asked about language as general concept, or about any particular concept.
104. The rites (in ancient Greece) consisted not in acts performed by the mistae, as modern scholars would have us believe, but in the seeing by mystae of something that was shown to them.
105. A difference of function will frequently cause a difference of sound to develop, and a difference of meaning sometimes has the same effect.
106. No one who has read any play of his (Shakespeare's) can fail to be impressed with the beauty of his expression, or the musical harmony of his verse.
107. The individuality which characterises any tongue may be said to consist of those general features which distinguish it from other tongues and those contradictions of its own general rules which we call anomalous forms.
108. Like Heine in the German Romantic movement, Musset may be said to represent the final phase of the French Romantic movement.
109. Some scholars like Henry Sweet and Otto Jespersen had seen that the fact that people speak in order to communicate, cannot help influencing the nature and evolution of speech sounds.
110. As there are so many references in this chapter to Latin, and as the paramount importance of studying Latin has been and is so strenuously asserted by its partisans and denied by its opponents, it may be worth while to summarize here the effects that the study of Latin may reasonably be expected to have upon English.
111. It has been found impossible, in practice, to grant admission to these collections indiscriminately. Situated as it is in the centre of London and attached to a world-famous collection of antiquities the danger of being completely overrun by chance inquiries of a trivial nature is so great that admission has had to be restricted to those who need to consult books not elsewhere available.
112. The excavation thus produced reached about eight feet downward, and the mass was found to consist throughout that depth of shells, sand and pebble.
113. The standards of the theatre throughout the nineteenth century had caused the word "theatrical" to be applied to behaviour and surroundings bearing no resemblance to ordinary people's experience of life. In the plays produced during the Court Theatre season a determined and successful effort was made to close the gap between life and the theatre; and although the example then set has often since been ignored, the British stage has never sunk back entirely into former artificial ways.

1 Mr. Wells -- Герберт Уэлс (1866--1946).
2 Речь идет о древнем периоде истории Японии.
3 may well -- вполне возможно
4 Galen -- Гален (131--200 н. э.), знаменитый римский врач. 5 Byzantines -- византийцы.
6 Macpherson -- Джеймс Макферсон (1736--1796), шотландский поэт.
7 Peninsula -- имеется в виду Аппенинский полуостров.
8 Ainus -- айны, неродственная японцам народность, населяющая некоторые острова Японии.
9 Chin Dynasty -- династия Цин, китайская династия, царствовавшая с 1664 по 1842 г.
10 Aryan -- индоевропейский праязык.
11 give and take -- здесь: обмен.
l2 Shogun -- Шогун (Тайкун), титул первого королевского вассала во времена японского феодализма.
13 Amorite land -- страна Аморетов.
14 coat of arms -- герб.

2. Повторение страдательного залога, неличных форм глагола,
сослагательного наклонения и условных предложений

114. Still enough evidence is at hand to support a surmise that the South American languages are of a structure similar to that of the North American ones, and that there is a possibility of some day proving all of them to be related.
115. Over most of England the average peasant had to stay where he was, do what he was told, and work for others as well as for himself, since otherwise the feudal contract could not be fulfilled by his social superiors. The dependency was, in a real sense, mutual. If the social system were not to break down, someone, or rather, some one class, had to provide the labour from which the fighting man could be maintained.
116. His (Defoe's) purpose was to tell a story in a practical manner, clearly, simply, so that every character and every incident should appear perfectly natural.
117. It is somewhat fortunate that the word had been left untranslated by all except in the instances referred to, for if it had been construed as belonging to the root mentioned, it doubtless would have been listed as a Babylonian word.
118. Monistic, holistic, and relativistic views of reality appeal to philosophers and some scientists, but they are badly handicapped in appealing to the "common sense" of the Western average man -- not because nature herself refutes them (if she did, philosophers could have discovered this much), but because they must be talked about in what amounts to a new language.
119. Should a reader wish to have books reserved for a longer period than this (2 days), permission must be obtained from the Superintendent of the Reading Room, but it is unusual for permission to be withheld.
120. The fact that the principal poets, Read being one, of a single generation (Yeats only in respect of the year of his birth belonging to a previous generation) should write so much criticism in proportion to their poetry raises a problem whose solution would go far to an understanding of the generation in question, as well as of the poets of that age.
121. This method was admirably adapted to the principles of the Moscow Art Theatre, which aimed at creating a cast where there would be no stars but all the actors would be equally excellent.
122. It seems likely that but for a certain lucky linguistic accident, man would never have discovered the alphabetic principle of writing. Had that been the case, the history of mankind would certainly have been very, very different.
123. My chief object in writing this chapter has been to make the reader realize that language is not exactly what one-sided occupation with dictionaries and the usual grammars might lead us to think, but a set of habits, of habitual actions, and that each word and each sentence spoken is a complex action on the part of the speaker.
124. Anyone who seeks to learn the fundamental principles of language should master at least one of this type (Finno-Ugric or Altaic).
125. Some upper palaeolithic tools seem already intended for wood-working. Without these new tools the improved hunting and fishing tackle described on p. 45 and the snug houses to be mentioned on p. 45 would have been inconceivable.
126. Goethe describes in "Dichtung und Wahrheit" 15 how in his youth he would wake up in the middle of the night, jump out of bed and without sitting down at his desk scribble across a piece of paper a poem that had just come into his head, having had the experience that even a little delay might obliterate it from the excited "tablets of his mind".
127. If a translator finds himself forced to omit something, he may be excused if he offers something else in its place, as if he were a merchant who, having promised to deliver a specified weight of a commodity, has failed to do so and must make amends by the gift of an unexpected bonus.
128. The author here would in all probability have been more successful if he had put his stories into the form of the novel.
129. It was remarkable, and must have seemed ironical to himself (to Oscar Wilde), that a man, so much talked of should have found no reward for his gifts except a succession of invitations to dinner.
130. In the shadowy beginnings of human life on earth, primitive men here and there must have had knowledge of the sinking of an island or a peninsula well within the time one man could observe. The witnesses of such a happening would have described it to their neighbours and children, and so the legend of a sinking continent might have been born.
131. Although it was natural, it was none the less disastrous that the earliest writers of textbooks of English grammar should take as their models the grammars of the Latin tongue.
132. Nobody in the world knows that desolate area like those people, and it is certain that if it had not been for them the Dead Sea Scrolls would still have remained undiscovered.
133. Since my activity, throughout my scholarly life, has been largely devoted to the rapproachment of these two disciplines, I may be forgiven if I preface my remarks with an autobiographic sketch of my first academic experience.
134. In this connection attention may again be called to the statements of Roman grammarians and writers. The inference to be drawn from their testimony would seem to be that Roman Latin had become the standard, normal speech of all Italy and that after the first century A. D. no reference was made to local accents or dialectal variations because none perceptibly continued to exist.

(15) "Dichtung und Wahrheit" -- "Поэзия и правда", автобиографическое произведение Гёте

3. Повторение страдательного залога,неличных форм глагола,
сослагательного наклонения, условных предложений
и эмфазы

135. It was during the reign of Theodosios I, the Great, 379--395, that the Olympic games were held at Constantinople (393), a number of antique monuments being brought to adorn the capital in honour of the occasion.
136. It was during the time when Latin was spoken, however, that the first modifications had to be made in the alphabet.
137. Opponents of the Censorship complained that plays in which serious problems were seriously discussed were refused a licence by the Censor, whereas frivolous plays received official approval, however debasing they might be to public taste and morality.
138. There is a strong probability that it was the ancient Egyptians who first hit on the alphabetic principle; but we cannot prove it for we cannot show that all or even a majority of the characters which ultimately became the alphabet we know were used in Egyptian texts of any period.
139. A little reflection will show that to the theory, thus boldly stated, there are many objections. No account is taken of imagination, which must necessarily play an important part in the highest forms of poetry; nor again is there any place for the subjective element - the innermost feelings of the individual poet which must find expression in all real poetry.
140. We know that Egypt established shrines to Amen in Palestine, and that they disappeared without leaving a trace. It is not impossible that the Babylonians may have attempted to do a similar thing.
141. Engels points out that labour, even of the most primitive kind, as in the fashioning and use of hunting and fishing implements, makes men perceive things with a new interest, enlarges their perceptions, "widens their horizon", makes them aware through their practical activity and from their perceptions of ever more properties of natural objects. And indeed, from these first beginnings, it has always been through their advancing mastery over nature that succeeding generations of men have come to know more and more of the properties of natural objects: each stage of advance has meant enlarged perceptions, new discoveries, wider horizons.
142. The discovery that words are arbitrary or conventional signs was an important discovery in science, obvious as it may seem. For it used often to be believed -- and some people still believe it today -- that a particular word is in some mysterious way "the right word" for a particular thing.
143. The modern novel, whatever its quality and degree of success, certainly accepts a naturalistic point of view, at least as a starting-point. The reader is invited to see the novelist's picture of life as though it were actually happening in the real world.
144. It has been argued, indeed, that Shakespeare must himself have been in Italy and Scotland, that he painted from the life, from personal observation and memory. Probably, however, he was never out of England, nor need we assume other resources than his all-embracing sympathy and imagination which enabled him to realize and harmonize into a vivid whole the miscellaneous information that could be derived from books and association with travellers.
145. If the Egyptians did indeed fail, after three thousand years, to discover the principle of alphabetic writing, it is striking evidence that man might never have had this art except for the lucky accident which we shall now proceed to describe.
146. The long awaited revenge did not indeed take place until sixty years after the event, when not only were the treaties themselves destroyed, but also sets of ivory panels which must once have adorned the king's throne and illustrated the men of Iran bringing in their vassal tribute to the king of Assyria.
147. Throughout the long period from the fourth to the fourteenth century mosaics were the things of primary importance, and it is to them that the highest place must be assigned in a study of Byzantine art, just as it is to sculpture in ancient Greece and to panel painting in Renaissance Italy that the student turns when in search of the characteristic and most accomplished art.
148. This book is not and could not possibly be a thorough coverage of the whole field -- often volumes of information are available on topics treated only briefly here -- but it does give a quick survey of general principles relating to nearly all aspects of the subject.
149. Interesting as is the matter of the History and Essays, it is the style in which they are written that gives them so high a place in literature.
150. Important as this chapter was, it nevertheless describes a different kind of institution, and is not strictly comparable with the others.
151. Karlgren made the assumption that those two characters had at the time of their invention the same, or nearly the same, sound, however much they may have come to differ in any modern dialect.
152. In studying the works of the early Renaissance sculptors it is important to remember that they at least had before their eyes tangible examples of the very work they admired, whereas the painters anxious though they were to link themselves with the Greecoroman past, had no models of Greek or Roman painting to refer to.
153. To the south, however, the inhabitants of the Guinea Coast, protected as they were by dense forests to the north, and by the Atlantic Ocean to the South and West, had not been affected by the contact with the outer world for hundreds -- perhaps thousands -- of years, until discovered by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century.
154. The German language, for instance, is supposed to be not unlike English, and word for word there are many resemblances.
155."The Tatler" was superseded in 1711 by "The Spectator"(16), and it is in the articles published in this periodical that Addison's work shows at its best.
156. The language develops slowly through a number of epochs, by modifying its vocabulary and grammar. It develops without undergoing sudden and revolutionary changes. The views expressed in language, on the other hand do undergo fundamental changes.
157. The facts do tell us this: here is a man whose birth and upbringing took place on a farm. Thus his childhood was passed in a way of life that even then was no longer representative of most childhoods. Read, in being reared in the remote countryside is one of the diminishing few who came to know a traditional England that has now died.
158. We have no other way of finding out about the world -- that is of gaining knowledge -- than through the exercise of our senses. Nor can our senses be so constituted as always or even usually to deceive us. If they were, we would not be able to live at all.
159. Another earthenware jug, shaped like an egg, was 54 cm high, had a capacity of 150 kg, but was only 13 cm in diameter at the mouth, which made it easy to seal. It could have been in such a container that, as records have it, the emperor sent wine when feasting soldiers after a victorious expedition.
160. Whatever the results of thought which are to be expressed, and whatever language they are expressed in, they must satisfy the basic requirements of the reflection of reality in thought.
161. It is not improbable that at one time Borneo was inhabited by people of the negrito race, small remnants of which are still to be found in islands adjacent to all the coasts of Borneo as well as in Malay Peninsula.
162. Vast as the continent of Asia is, it is not nearly as congested linguistically as Europe or Africa (or even the Caucasus), for large stretches are sparsely populated.
163. This study shares a fault not uncommon in recent Italian scholarly publication, of blowing up an article or monograph into a book ranging far afield from the central theme.
164. Included in the "Plays Pleasant"(17) was what is probably the authors's greatest literary success. This is the play "Candida" which reaches a high level in technique and character-drawing, and is also very direct in the lesson it is meant to teach.
165. Whether this was the same combat between winter and summer which is found later in European folklore, as some scholars think, I dare not say. But it may not be useless to observe that two of the highest achievements of the Greek spirit, the drama and bucolic poetry, have their origin in simple rural customs.
166. Remains of bouses of the half-underground type, afterwards so universal, appear only in the middle stratum, showing that not until then had the population so multiplied and mutual confidence sufficiently matured, for the more ancient, temporary, above-ground houses to begin to be supplanted by more substantial and comfortable structures.
167. His character (Carlyle's) (18) was not an amiable one; he was intensely egotistic, often selfish and petty; and these qualities could not fail to affect his work. To them must be ascribed his occasional lapse from fairness in criticism, his peculiarly distorted views on certain subjects, his whims and fads, and his offensive way of speaking to those whom he considered narrow-minded.
168. The painters seem to have constituted a school, working under the direction of a single master. The differences of style in the models that were followed also had a role to play, and it is for that reason that each of the eight painters does not seem to show complete uniformity in his work.
169. With the decline of classical Latin of literature and the increasingly greater vulgarization of the popular standardized Latin of the lower classes of the Empire there was also the beginning of the normal process of division brought about by more difficult communications, decline of trade, and the increasing tendency for each community to become economically self-sufficient. This process can, and normally does, continue ad iufinitum (19) until each village develops its own local peculiarities of speech; and this condition is well exemplified in Italy, where the standardized Latin of Imperial times gave rise to a multitude of local speeches.
170. In the first month of the following year, reminded of the previous spring by the flowering of the plum-trees before his house, he went to the Western Pavilion, and stood there gazing. But gaze as he might, there was to his mind no resemblance to the scene of the year before.
171. Here we find a condition that causes a considerable waste and which could have been avoided by a better selection of words.
172. It might be thought that this second set of principles is as general as the first. Such is not the case, e.g. the ideas of singular and plural as exhaustive categories are not common to all languages: Greek and Gothic have three numbers: Singular, Dual and Plural.
173. However important the role of Rome may have been in developing the use of vault, arch and dome in imperial days, the initiative had passed from Italy by the fifth century, and it was in Asia Minor and Constantinople that the vaulted basilics and the domed structures saw their full development as Christian buildings.

16 "The Tatler", "The Spectator" -- название еженедельных журналов, издаваемых Аддисоном (1672--1719).
17 "Plays Pleasant" -- сборник пьес Бернарда Шоу (1856-- 1950).
18 Carlyle -- Томас Карлейль (1795--1881), английский философ и историк.
19 ad infinitum -- бесконечно, постоянно.

4. Повторение страдательного залога, неличных форм глагола,
сослагательного наклонения, условных предложений,
эмфазы и синтаксиса

174. Chaucer's outlook on life was certainly narrower than Shakespeare's; he would have been unable to realize, much less to describe, the awful tragedy of the life of Lear or Othello. But what he has seen he describes perfectly and vividly.
175. In the past few decades much serious and effective work has been done by American linguists in order to produce scientific descriptions of the still-spoken Amerindian languages (as they are sometimes called). This work is the more important since some of the communities in question appear to face extinction in the near future.
176. That such a vast area should have bread many different peoples each with its own language, customs and religious observances is only natural.
177. Once an abstract idea is formed and embodied in words, then the possibility arises that these words will be taken to refer to special kinds of objects which exist apart from the objects of material world which are reflected in sense-perceptions. And this possibility is the more apt to be realized, the more the handling of abstract ideas becomes a special social activity separated from material labour.
178. And it is precisely here that the comedies of Johnson and Shakespeare differ most profoundly; for whatever labels we apply to them, whatever the general nature of their materials, whatever their connections with classical or Renaissance concepts of comedy, these plays differ most significantly in that they dramatize two different responses to the human situation.
179. As interesting as Inge's ideas and comments were, what he was as a human being was even more fascinating.
180. Whether this conviction was independently reached by him we do not know. We do know that some time during 1924 there came to his attention a book which could have buttressed his beliefs, and which at any rate drew him closer to linguistics.
181. But exactly how much this influence was exerted and how important was its role will only be disclosed when further first-hand researches have been concluded in Asia Minor.
182. The semantic difficulties of our topic are troublesome, and no ready relief seems possible beyond constant attention to how terms are used in their contexts, especially to their polar oppositions.
183. In some continental European countries, there are language Academies which practically legislate the language. Not that the Academies really want to halt the process of language change. They only want to turn it into what they consider desirable channels. But the Academy's view of what is a desirable channel and the view of the great body of speakers aren't always quite the same.
184. From etymology we learn that the Gauls whom Caesar fought wore clan tartans, as do their modern descendants.
185. After 1500 В. С. presumably as the result of the development of mining, metal became commoner everywhere. Even barbarians could now afford to provide carpenters and smiths with bronze tools. In the civilized Orient bronze hoe-blades and sickles became commoner. Even so, bronze never replaced stone in the way iron did.
186. It should be remembered, too, that it was a Dane, King Knut, who achieved what every English ruler had failed to achieve, the union of the whole of England into one peaceful realm.
187. Much of the material the biographer ought to consult, moreover, is widely dispersed or difficult to access. As the result of this, for a long while the amount of reputable criticism was small.

5. Примеры, содержащие лексические трудности

188. So far as biblical or ecclesiastical books were concerned, bound books were far more common, and as often as not the more important ones were elaborately illustrated.
189.This Mr. B. was of much assistance to me. A very interesting, all-round man I found him. I should say his like was not easily to be found in any country.
190. From time to time one reads, in the correspondence columns of newspapers and magazines, letters which lay objections against words containing parts derived from different languages.
191. This does not imply that hunting by means of traps and pitfalls fell into disuse.
192. The Greeks took it for granted that back of language was a universal, uncontaminated essence of reason, shared by all men, at least by all thinkers. Words, they believed, were but the medium in which this deeper effulgence found expression.
193. It must be pointed out that no one belongs exclusively to his family. Every single member of the circle also comes in contact with many people outside it. This is especially the case when life is as varied and as many-sided as it is today.
194. That similarity all but passed unnoticed, even though it deserves detailed attention.
195. Unlike the surface waters (of the ocean), which know day and night, and change as the seasons change, the deep waters are a place where change comes slowly, if at all.
196. The only psychological term I know of that expresses connection between ideas is "association", but this has quite a definite meaning and one that will not do for the meaning that I have in mind.
197. There is little point in providing a classified catalogue unless it conforms with the scheme in use for the books.
198. The chapter-end references include the more comprehensive publications dealing with the subject matter of the chapter in question and are carefully selected for supplementary reading.
199. Crabbe's (20) poems mainly had to do with the lives of the poor; their joys, their sorrows, and their crimes.
200. As for the authors, their name is legion. Among them, however, two poets stand out with some degree of eminence -- viz., Hitomare and Akahito. The former flourished at the end of the seventh century, the latter in the reign of Shomu (724--756). Little is known of either further than they were officials of the Mikado's court.
201. The modern science of etymology has shown what is and what is not possible, has established many a relationship and destroyed many an ancient illusion.
202. Of lesser imaginary beings, the most unique are the thunderbird and the plumed or horned serpent. The former is widely distributed in the United States, the latter is found from Chile to Lake Superior.
203. Of much longer duration was the activity of those volcanoes which gave rise to the numerous craters and masses of basaltic rock.
204. Unlike the language in which they are expressed, the views of society are products of a particular system of production relations, of particular classes.
205. In the present case I have criticized the theories of others because I believed it to be demonstrable that they were false, and because, although some of them have been proclaimed loudly and with a certain intolerance, there has hardly been a voice raised to call them in question and to present the other side.
206. Aristotle, for all his mastery in the sphere of scientific observational method, remained politically identified with an obsolescent environment.
207. A purely literary and aesthetic use of stylistics limits it to the study of a work of art or a group of works which are to be described in terms of their aesthetic function and meaning. Only if this aesthetic interest is central will stylistics be a part of literary scholarship.
208. Views as to the actual date of the manuscript varied; the seventh century was the most usually favoured, but it was generally agreed that the illustrations must have followed an archetype perhaps as early as the 2d century.
209. So great was the practical value of Latin that it continued in use as a literary language until medieval times, a language well able to meet all the demands made upon it.
210. Traces of tamed hog are almost entirely wanting in the old settlements of the Stone Age.
211. For all the differences between the modes and conditions of life of the shepherds and peasants in the interior, the miners in the South-West, and the clerks, workers and students in Cagliary, all Sardinians are equally concerned for Sardinia's plight.
212. The whole piece rarely occupies more than six or seven pages of print, and it usually takes less than an hour to perform. Within this narrow compass it might be expected that the unities of time, place and action would have been observed. This is far from being the case.

20 Crabbe George -- Джордж Крэб (1754--1832), английский поэт-романтик.